Which diagnostic test is used to measure the efficiency of gas transfer in the lung and tissue

The main clinical roles of respiratory function tests include diagnosis, assessment of severity, monitoring treatment and evaluation of prognosis.

Spirometry

Spirometry (figure 1) is the most important function test – it measures vital capacity (VC) and forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1). This permits differentiation between restrictive and obstructive respiratory diseases. If expired volume is measured by electrical integration of airflow (using a pneumotachograph), maximum flow–volume curves can also be registered. These tests are used to measure the effect of bronchodilating drugs on reversibility of obstruction as well as to determine responsiveness to bronchial provocation tests. Simple instruments for patient home use include peak flow meters, which measure the degree of obstruction.

Lung capacity and airway resistance

The total lung capacity can be determined using either gas dilution techniques or body plethysmography. The latter method also allows the measurement of airway resistance. The forced oscillation technique, which measures the resistance of the total respiratory system, has the advantage that the patient does not need to perform specific breathing manoeuvres.

Diffusing capacity

The diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (also known as transfer factor), which is usually performed as a single-breath test, measures the overall gas-exchange function of the lung.

Blood gas analysis

Arterial blood gas (ABG) measurement to determine the arterial oxygen tension (PaO2 ) and arterial carbon dioxide tension (PaCO2) is one of the most useful diagnostic tests: blood can be sampled directly from an artery, or an estimate can be obtained from capillary blood from, for instance, a warmed earlobe. ABG measurement allows the diagnosis of hypoxaemia (decreased PaO2) with or without hypercapnia (increased PaCO2), a sensitive index of inefficient pulmonary gas exchange, which is also used for defining respiratory failure. PaO2 measurement after breathing 100% oxygen is sometimes used to estimate the anatomical right-to-left shunt. Arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2) represents the percentage of binding sites on the haemoglobin molecule occupied by oxygen and offers a noninvasive method of estimating arterial blood oxygenation; it is measured directly by an oximeter with a probe attached to either the finger or the earlobe. PaCO2 can also be estimated noninvasively, using a transcutaneous electrode but such devices are not yet as widely used as oximeters. ABG measurement also allows evaluation of acid–base disorders.

Cardiopulmonary exercise testing

Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET), with determination of minute ventilation, cardiac and respiratory frequency, oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide output, is an objective measure of exercise capacity (spiroergometry). Simpler tests use capillary oxygen partial pressure measurements during exercise on an ergometer or symptom-limited walking tests, such as the 6-min shuttle walk test, with measurement of SaO2 using an oximeter.

Respiratory muscle function measurement

Respiratory muscle function is commonly assessed by measuring maximal pressures generated at the mouth during maximal inspiratory and expiratory efforts against an occluded airway.

Control of ventilation

Tests of ventilatory control include the hyperoxic rebreathing method and the hypoxia-withdrawal method. Simpler, but less specific, is the measurement of the mouth occlusion pressure.

Diagnosis of sleep breathing disorders

The diagnosis of sleep-related respiratory disorders requires special tests. The gold standard is polysomnography, but simpler tests are available for screening purposes (‘respiratory polysomnography’).

Right heart catheterisation

Right heart catheterisation is used in the differential diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension.

Intensive care monitoring

The management of respiratory failure in the intensive care unit requires, in addition to frequent checking of ABGs, the measurement of several special parameters (e.g. tidal volume, inspiratory and expiratory pressures); in mechanically ventilated patients, these are often measured automatically by the ventilator.

See the entire Principles of respiratory investigation Chapter

Gas exchange is measured through several means, including

• Diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide

• Pulse oximetry

• Arterial blood gas sampling

The diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) is a measure of the ability of gas to transfer from the alveoli across the alveolar epithelium and the capillary endothelium to the red blood cells. The DLCO depends not only on the area and thickness of the blood-gas barrier but also on the volume of blood in the pulmonary capillaries. The distribution of alveolar volume and ventilation also affects the measurement.

DLCO is measured by sampling end-expiratory gas for carbon monoxide (CO) after patients inspire a small amount of carbon monoxide, hold their breath, and exhale. Measured DLCO should be adjusted for alveolar volume (which is estimated from dilution of helium Lung volume

Conditions that primarily affect the pulmonary vasculature, such as primary pulmonary hypertension Pulmonary Hypertension Pulmonary hypertension is increased pressure in the pulmonary circulation. It has many secondary causes; some cases are idiopathic. In pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary vessels may become constricted... read more and pulmonary embolism Pulmonary Embolism (PE) Pulmonary embolism (PE) is the occlusion of pulmonary arteries by thrombi that originate elsewhere, typically in the large veins of the legs or pelvis. Risk factors for pulmonary embolism are... read more

, decrease DLCO. Conditions that affect the lung diffusely, such as emphysema Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is airflow limitation caused by an inflammatory response to inhaled toxins, often cigarette smoke. Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency and various occupational... read more

and pulmonary fibrosis Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), the most common form of idiopathic interstitial pneumonia, causes progressive pulmonary fibrosis. Symptoms and signs develop over months to years and include... read more

, decrease both DLCO and alveolar ventilation (VA). Reduced DLCO also occurs in patients with previous lung resection because total lung volume is smaller, but DLCO corrects to or even exceeds normal when adjusted for VA because increased additional vascular surface area is recruited in the remaining lung. Patients with anemia have lower DLCO values that correct when adjusted for hemoglobin values.

Transcutaneous pulse oximetry estimates oxygen saturation (SpO2) of capillary blood based on the absorption of light from light-emitting diodes positioned in a finger clip or adhesive strip probe. The estimates are generally very accurate and correlate to within 5% of measured arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2). Results may be less accurate in patients with

• Highly pigmented skin

• Arrhythmias

• Hypotension

• Profound systemic vasoconstriction

Pulse oximetry results are also less accurate in patients wearing nail polish.

Pulse oximetry is able to detect only oxyhemoglobin or reduced hemoglobin but not other types of hemoglobin (eg, carboxyhemoglobin, methemoglobin); those types are assumed to be oxyhemoglobin and falsely elevate the SpO2 measurement.

ABG sampling is done to obtain accurate measures of arterial oxygen partial pressure (PaO2), arterial carbon dioxide partial pressure (PaCO2), and arterial pH; these variables adjusted for the patient’s temperature allow for calculation of bicarbonate level (which can also be measured directly from venous blood) and SaO2. ABG sampling can also accurately measure carboxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin.

The radial artery is usually used. Because arterial puncture in rare cases leads to thrombosis and impaired perfusion of distal tissue, Allen test may be done to assess adequacy of collateral circulation. With this maneuver, the radial and ulnar pulses are simultaneously occluded until the patient's hand becomes pale. The ulnar pulse is then released while pressure on the radial pulse is maintained. A blush across the entire hand within 7 seconds of release of the ulnar pulse suggests adequate flow through the ulnar artery.

Under sterile conditions, a 22- to 25-gauge needle attached to a heparin-treated syringe is inserted just proximal to the maximal impulse of the radial arterial pulse and advanced slightly distally into the artery until pulsatile blood is returned. Systolic blood pressure is usually sufficient to push back the syringe plunger. After 3 to 5 mL of blood is collected, the needle is quickly withdrawn, and firm pressure is applied to the puncture site to facilitate hemostasis. Simultaneously, the ABG specimen is placed on ice to reduce oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production by WBCs and is sent to the laboratory.

Hypoxemia is a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) in arterial blood; hypoxia is a decrease in the PO2 in the tissue. ABGs accurately assess the presence of hypoxemia, which is generally defined as a PaO2 low enough to reduce the SaO2 below 90% (ie, PaO2 60 mm Hg). Abnormalities in hemoglobin (eg, methemoglobin), higher temperatures, lower pH, and higher levels of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate reduce hemoglobin SaO2 despite an adequate PaO2, as indicated by the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve.

Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

Arterial oxyhemoglobin saturation is related to PO2. PO2 at 50% saturation (P50) is normally 27 mm Hg.

The dissociation curve is shifted to the right by increased hydrogen ion (H+) concentration, increased red blood cell 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG), increased temperature (T), and increased PCO2.

Decreased levels of H+, DPG, temperature, and PCO2 shift the curve to the left.

Hemoglobin characterized by a rightward shifting of the curve has a decreased affinity for oxygen, and Hemoglobin characterized by a leftward shifting of the curve has an increased affinity for oxygen.

Causes of hypoxemia can be classified based on whether the alveolar-arterial PO2 gradient [(A-a)DO2], defined as the difference between alveolar oxygen tension (PAO2) and PaO2, is elevated or normal. PAO2 is calculated as follows:

where FIO2 is the fraction of inspired oxygen (eg, 0.21 at room air), Patm is the ambient barometric pressure (eg, 760 mm Hg at sea level), PH2O is the partial pressure of water vapor (eg, usually 47 mm Hg), PaCO2 is the measured partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide, and R is the respiratory quotient, which is assumed to be 0.8 in a resting patient eating a normal diet.

For patients at sea level and breathing room air, FIO2 = 0.21, and the (A-a)DO2 can be simplified as follows:

where (A-a)DO2 is typically < 20 but increases with age (because of age-related decline in pulmonary function) and with increasing FIO2 (because, although hemoglobin becomes 100% saturated at a PaO2 of about 150 mm Hg, oxygen is soluble in blood, and the oxygen content of plasma continues to increase at increasing FIO2). Estimations of normal (A-a)DO2 values as < (2.5 + [FIO2× age in years]) or as less than the absolute value of the FIO2 (eg, < 21 while breathing room air; < 30 on 30% FIO2) correct for these effects.

PCO2 normally is maintained between 35 and 45 mm Hg. A dissociation curve similar to that for oxygen exists for carbon dioxide but is nearly linear over the physiologic range of PaCO2. Abnormal PCO2 is almost always linked to disorders of ventilation (unless occurring in compensation for a metabolic abnormality) and is always associated with acid-base changes.

Hypocapnia is PCO2 < 35 mm Hg. Hypocapnia is always caused by hyperventilation due to pulmonary (eg, pulmonary edema Pulmonary Edema Pulmonary edema is acute, severe left ventricular failure with pulmonary venous hypertension and alveolar flooding. Findings are severe dyspnea, diaphoresis, wheezing, and sometimes blood-tinged... read more

, pulmonary embolism Pulmonary Embolism (PE) Pulmonary embolism (PE) is the occlusion of pulmonary arteries by thrombi that originate elsewhere, typically in the large veins of the legs or pelvis. Risk factors for pulmonary embolism are... read more

), cardiac (eg, heart failure Heart Failure (HF) Heart failure (HF) is a syndrome of ventricular dysfunction. Left ventricular (LV) failure causes shortness of breath and fatigue, and right ventricular (RV) failure causes peripheral and abdominal... read more

), metabolic (eg, acidosis Metabolic Acidosis Metabolic acidosis is primary reduction in bicarbonate (HCO3−), typically with compensatory reduction in carbon dioxide partial pressure (Pco2); pH may be markedly low or slightly... read more ), drug-induced (eg, aspirin, progesterone), central nervous system (eg, infection, tumor, bleeding, increased intracranial pressure), or physiologic (eg, pain, pregnancy) disorders or conditions. Hypocapnia is thought to directly increase bronchoconstriction and lower the threshold for cerebral and myocardial ischemia, perhaps through its effects on acid-base status.

Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin with an affinity 210 times that of oxygen and prevents oxygen transport. Clinically toxic carboxyhemoglobin levels are most often the result of exposure to exhaust fumes or from smoke inhalation, although cigarette smokers have detectable levels.

Patients with carbon monoxide poisoning Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning causes acute symptoms such as headache, nausea, weakness, angina, dyspnea, loss of consciousness, seizures, and coma. Neuropsychiatric symptoms may develop weeks... read more may present with nonspecific symptoms such as malaise, headache, and nausea. Because poisoning often occurs during colder months (because of indoor use of combustible fuel heaters), symptoms may be confused with a viral syndrome such as influenza. Clinicians must be alert to the possibility of carbon monoxide poisoning and measure levels of carboxyhemoglobin when indicated. Carboxyhemoglobin can be directly measured from venous blood—an arterial sample is unnecessary. Oxygen saturation determined by pulse oximetry will be normal and cannot be used to screen for carbon monoxide poisoning. Carboxyhemoglobin can be measured by co-oximetry.

Treatment is the administration of 100% oxygen (which shortens the half-life of carboxyhemoglobin) and sometimes the use of a hyperbaric chamber.

Methemoglobin is hemoglobin in which the iron is oxidized from its ferrous (Fe2+) to its ferric (Fe3+) state. Methemoglobin does not carry oxygen and shifts the normal oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to the left, thereby limiting the release of oxygen to the tissues.

Methemoglobinemia is caused by certain drugs (eg, dapsone, local anesthetics, nitrates, primaquine, sulfonamides) or, less commonly, by certain chemicals (eg, aniline dyes, benzene derivatives).

Methemoglobin level can be directly measured by co-oximetry (which emits 4 wavelengths of light and is capable of detecting methemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin, hemoglobin, and oxyhemoglobin) or may be estimated by the difference between the oxygen saturation calculated from the measured PaO2 and the directly measured oxygen saturation. Oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry will be inaccurate in the presence of methemoglobinemia.

Patients with methemoglobinemia most often have asymptomatic cyanosis. In severe cases, oxygen delivery is reduced to such a degree that symptoms of tissue hypoxia, such as confusion, angina, and myalgias, result. Stopping the causative drug or chemical exposure is often sufficient. Rarely, methylene blue (a reducing agent; a 1% solution is given 1 to 2 mg/kg slowly IV) or exchange transfusion is needed.

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Which diagnostic test is used to measure the efficiency of gas transfer in the lung and tissue oxygenation quizlet?

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Which diagnostic test is used to measure the efficiency of gas transfer in the lung?

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