Thorndike concluded that most learning occurs through trial and error. He claimed that the consequences of a response determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened (the law of effect). In Skinner's operant conditioning, behaviors change as a result of the consequences they produce. Reinforcement occurs when consequences cause behaviors to increase. Punishment occurs when consequences cause behaviors to decrease. Show
Both positive (added) and negative (subtracted, removed) reinforcement increase behavior. In positive reinforcement, a behavior occurs more frequently because it produces a desired consequence. In negative reinforcement, a behavior is learned because it makes an undesirable condition or stimulus go away. Primary reinforcers are consequences that satisfy basic needs. Secondary reinforcers are those that have some kind of association with a primary reinforcer. In one kind of operant conditioning, shaping, complex behaviors are learned in small steps. In extinction, behaviors disappear when the consequences they formerly produced are no longer available. A discriminative stimulus is one that through its association with reinforcement signals learners about behaviors that are likely to be reinforced. The four types of schedules of reinforcement are the fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules. The variable-ratio schedule provides the highest response rate and the most resistance to extinction. The partial-reinforcement effect is the greater resistance to extinction that occurs when responses are maintained under partial reinforcement, rather than under continuous reinforcement. Punishment happens when either an added (positive) or a removed (negative) consequence leads to a reduction in the frequency of a behavior. Generally, punishment does not help people develop more appropriate behaviors, and it can cause fear, anger, hostility, and aggression in the punished person. Punishment is most effective when it is given immediately after undesirable behavior, when it is consistently applied, and when it is just intense enough to suppress the behavior. Avoidance learning is desirable when it leads to a beneficial response, such as buckling a seat belt to stop the annoying sound of a buzzer. It is maladaptive when it occurs in response to fear. For example, fear of speaking to a group may lead you to skip class on the day your oral report is scheduled. Applications of operant conditioning include training animals to provide entertainment or to help physically challenged people, using biofeedback to gain control over internal physiological processes, and using behavior modification techniques to eliminate undesirable behavior and/or encourage desirable behavior in individuals or groups. Recommended textbook solutions
 Psychology: Themes and Variations10th EditionWayne Weiten 180 solutions Cognitive Psychology3rd EditionE Bruce Goldstein, Robert Hershberger 150 solutions Abnormal Psychology7th EditionDavid Barlow, V Durand 305 solutions Cognitive Psychology4th EditionE Bruce Goldstein 300 solutions *Pavlov also found that a conditioned stimulus could itself function as an unconditioned stimulus, a phenomenon called higher order conditioning, or second-order conditioning. * For example, Like most babies, Sandy's daughter hated shots. Each painful injection (UCS) made her cry (UCR). Soon Laura developed a conditioned response-just the sight of a white uniform (CS) triggered crying (CR). To illustrate higher order conditioning, image if Laura reacted with fear when she saw a white-jacketed waiter serving coffee. If Laura responded with fear the next time she smelled coffee, higher order conditioning would take place. The coffee fee aroma had never been paired with the original UCS, the painful injection, but it became a CS by being paired with the first CS, the white jacket, and produced the conditioned response. When a conditioned response occurs in response to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus this is called?Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus that is similar to an already-conditioned stimulus begins to produce the same response as the original stimulus does. Stimulus discrimination occurs when the organism learns to differentiate between the CS and other similar stimuli.
What is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus?Generalization refers to the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus.
Is conditioned stimulus the same as conditioned response?A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response. In the described experiment, the conditioned stimulus was the ringing of the bell, and the conditioned response was salivation. It is important to note that the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.
What is similar between a conditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus quizlet?A conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the unconditioned stimulus. A conditioned response is the acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus.
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When a conditioned response occurs in response to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus this is called quizlet?
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