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Terms in this set (81)PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNTIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget thought that we build mental structures that help us to adapt to the world. Adaptation adjusting to new environmental demands Piaget said that as the child seeks to construct an understanding of the world, the developing brain creates schemes: actions or mental representations that organize knowledge. Behavioral schemes characterize infancy, mental schemes develop in childhood. A baby's schemes are structured by simple actions that can be performed on objects. Older children have schemes that include strategies and plans for solving problems To explain how children use and adapt their schemes Piaget proposed two concepts: - Assimilation: occurs when children incorporate new info into their existing schemes Organization by Piaget the grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system. To make sense out of their world children cognitively organize their experiences. Equilibration by Piaget a mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage pf thought to the next. The shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict in trying to understand the world. Eventually, they resolve the conflict and reach an equilibrium. For Piaget the motivation for change is an internal search for equilibrium. As old schemes are adjusted and new schemes are developed, the child organizes and reorganizes the old and the new schemes. The result of these processes is that individuals go through four stages of development. Cognition is qualitatively different in each stage. Each of Piaget's stages is age-related and consists of distinct ways of thinking. Sensorimotor stage (birt-2y) infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical, motoric actions. Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six substages: 1. Simple reflexes (first month after birth) The first sensorimotor stage by Jean Piaget - Simple reflexes (first month after birth): sensation and action are coordinated primarily through reflexive behaviors (sucking and rooting reflexes). Soon the infant produces behaviors that resemble reflexes in the absence of the usual stimulus for the reflex Stage 2 by Jean Piaget - First habits and primary circular reactions (1-4months): the infant coordinates sensation and two types of schemes: Habit (scheme) a scheme based on a reflex that has become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus Primary circular reaction (scheme) a scheme based on the attempt to produce an event that initially occurred by chance Stage 3 by Jean Piaget - Secondary circular reactions (4-8months): the infant becomes more object-oriented, moving beyond preoccupation with the self. The infant repeats actions for the sake of its fascination. The infant also imitates some simple actions. The infant's schemes are not intentional or goal-directed Stage 4 by Jean Piaget - Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12months): the infant must coordinate vision and touch, hand and eye. Actions become more outwardly directed. Infants readily combine and recombine previously learned schemes in a coordinated way. There is intentionality in their actions. Stage 5 by Jean Piaget - Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity (12-18months): infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things that they can make happen to objects. Tertiary circular reactions: schemes in which the infant purposely explores new possibilities with objects, continually doing new thing to them and exploring the results (starting point for human curiosity). Stage 6 by Jean Piaget - Internalization of schemes (18-24months): the infant develops the ability to use primitive symbols. Symbol: an internalized sensory image or word that represents an event. Primitive symbols permit the infant to think about concrete events without directly acting them out or perceiving them Object Permanence (Piaget) is understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard or touched. According to Piaget in newborns there is no differentiation between the self and the world. By the end of the sensorimotor period, children understand that objects are both separate from the self and permanent. Evaluating Piaget's sensorimotor stage Infant's cognitive world is not as neatly package as Piaget portrayed it, and some of Piaget's explanations fro the cause f cognitive changes in development are debated. A not B error (Piaget) a toy is hidden twice, initially at location A, and subsequently at location B, 8-to-12 months old infants search correctly art location A initially, but when the toy is hidden at location B, they make the mistake of continuing to search for it at location A. the A-not-B error does not show up consistently. Perceptual development and expectations by Gibson and Spelke Gibson and Spelke argue that infant's perceptual abilities are highly developed very early in life. Fro example intermodal perception is present by 3,5 months of age much earlier than Piaget would have predicted. Research also suggest that infants develop expectations about future events by the time they are 3-to-4 months of age (preferential looking for expected and unexpected actions). Research documents that infants as young as three month expect objects to be substantial (objects cannot move through them) and permanent (continue to exist when they are hidden). Perceptual development and expectations by Meltzoff Meltzoff argue that how long infant look at unexpected events assess infant's perceptual expectations about where and when objects will reappear rather than tapping their knowledge about where the objects are when they are out of sight. By 6-to-8 months infants have learned to perceive gravity and support. The nature-nurture issue Core knowledge approach (Spelke): states that infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems (space, number sense, language...). Innate core knowledge domains from a foundation on which more mature cognitive functioning and learning develop. Proponents of the core knowledge approach argue that Piaget greatly underestimated the cognitive abilities of young infants. Preoperational emphasizes that the child does not yet perform operations: internalized actions that allow children to do mentally what the could formerly do only physically. Preoperational thought is the beginning of the ability to reconstruct in thought what has been establish in behavior. Preoperational stage (2-7y): children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. Preoperational thought can be divided in substages. Symbolic function substage (2-4y): the young child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present. Young children use scribble designs to represent things, they begin to use
language, and engage in pretend play. Their thought still has two important limitations: Egocentrism: the inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's perspective Animism: the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of actions Intuitive thought substage (4-7y) children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sort of questions. The child's questions signal the emergence of interest in reasoning and in figuring out why thing are the way they are. Intuitive because young children seem so sure about their knowledge and understanding yet are unaware of how they know what they know. One limitation of preoperational thought is centration centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others. Centration is most clearly evidenced in young children's lack of conservation: the awareness that altering an object's or substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. The preoperational child fails to show conservation of liquid, number, matter, length, volume and area. Children often vary in their performance of different conservation tasks (a child could conserve volume but not number). What most clearly indicates Centration? Centration is most clearly evidenced in young children's lack of conservation. The preoperational child fails to show conservation of liquid, number, matter, length, volume and area. Children often vary in their performance of different conservation tasks (a child could conserve volume but not number). Сonservation the awareness that altering an object's or substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. Concrete operational stage (7-11y) logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. Concrete operations reversible mental actions on real, concrete objects. Conservation Concrete operations allow children to coordinate several characteristics rather than focus on a single property of an object. Children do not conserve all qualities or conserve on all tasks simultaneously. The order of their mastery is number, length, liquid quantity, mass, weight, and volume. Horizontal dècalage Piaget's concept that similar abilities do not appear at the same time within a stage of development. Falsification Children in the concrete operational stage have the ability to classify things and to consider their relationships. They can understand: the interrelationships among set and subsets: the ability to divide things into set and subsets and understand their relationships (family tree) seriation: the ordering of stimuli along a quantitative dimension (to order the sticks by length) transitivity: the ability to reason about and logically combine relationships (if A>B, and B>C, then A>C) Formal operational stage (11-15y) individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in abstract and more logical way, develop images of ideal circumstances, begin to entertain possibilities for the future and are fascinated with what they might become. Abstract, idealistic, and logical thinking The formal operational thinker can solve problems through verbal presentation. Another indication of the abstract quality of adolescence's thought is their increased tendency to think about thought itself. Adolescents begin to engage in extended speculation about ideal characteristics. Such thoughts often lead adolescents to compare themselves with others in regard to ideal standards. As adolescents are learning to think more abstractly and idealistically, they are also learning to think more logically. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents develop hypothesis, or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the best path to follow in solving the problem. Assimilation dominates the initial development of formal operational thought. Later in adolescence, these individuals accommodate to the cognitive upheaval that has occurred. There is much more individual variations in formal operational thought than Piaget envisioned (many adults never even become formal operational thinkers). Adolescent egocentrism the heightened self consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in their beliefs that others are as interested in them as they are
themselves, and in their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility. It can be divided in two types of social thinking: Imaginary audience the aspect of adolescent egocentrism that involves feeling one is the center of everyone's attention and sensing that one is on stage Personal fable the part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness (none can understand how they really feel) and invincibility Two dimensions of Invulnerability 1. danger invulnerability Danger invulnerability involves adolescents' sense of indestructibility and tendency to take on physical risks (connected to juvenile delinquency, substance abuse, and depression) Psychological invulnerabilitybio adolescents' invulnerability related to personal or psychological distress (less likely to be depresses, higher self-esteem, and better interpersonal relationships) Piaget's theory can be applied to teaching children: 1. take a constructivist approach Take a constructivist approach (by Piaget's theory) Piaget emphasized that children learn best when they are active and seek solutions for themselves Facilitate rather than direct learning (by Piaget's theory) effective teachers design situations that allow students to learn by doing Consider the child's knowledge and level of thinking (by Piaget's theory) teachers need to interpret what a student is saying and respond in a way that is not too far from the student's level Promote the student's intellectual health (by Piaget's theory) children's learning should occur naturally. Children should not be pushed or pressured into achieving too much too early Turn the classroom into a setting of exploration and discovery (by Piaget's theory) teachers observe the students' interest and natural participation in activities to determine what the course of learning will be Psychologists owe Piaget's theory for: assimilation, accommodation, object permanence, egocentrism, conservation, for the current vision of children as active and constructive thinkers. Criticisms of Piaget's Theory: Estimates of children's competence Some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget's thought. Cognitive abilities also can emerge later then Piaget's thought. Recent theoretical revision highlight more cognitive competences of infants and young children and more cognitive shortcomings of adolescents and adults. Criticisms of Piaget's Theory: Stages Most contemporary developmentalists agree that children's cognitive development is not as stage-like as Piaget's thought. Criticisms of Piaget's Theory: Effects of training Some children who are at one cognitive stage can be trained to reason at a higher cognitive stage. Criticisms of Piaget's Theory: Culture and education Culture and education exert stronger influences on children's development than Piaget reasoned. Criticisms of Piaget's Theory: The neo-Piagetian approach Neo-Piagetians: developmentalists who have elaborated on Piaget's theory, believing that children's cognitive development is more specific in many respects than Piaget thought and giving more emphasis to how children use memory, attention, and strategies to process info. VYGOTSKY'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Vygotsky emphasized that children actively contract their knowledge and understanding. In his theory children are more often described as social creatures than in Piaget's theory. Their cognitive development depends on the tools provided by society, and their minds are shaped by the cultural context in which they live. Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
term for the rage of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone, but that can be learned with guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children. The ZPD captures the child's cognitive skills that ae in the process of maturing and can be accomplished only with assistance of a more skilled person. Scaffolding (Vygotsky) change the level of support. Over the course of teaching sessions, a more skilled person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the child's current performance. As the student's competence increases, less guidance is given. What is an important tool for scaffolding in the zone of proximal development? Dialogue, In a dialogue, the unorganized and unsystematic concepts of a child meet with the skilled helper's more systematic, logical and rational concepts. As a result, the child's concepts become more organized. Why children use speech according to Vygotsky? Not only for social communication, but also to help them solve tasks. Private Speech (Vygotsky) young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior Private speech (Piaget) For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature Language and thought (Vygotsky) Vygotsky said that language and thought initially develop independently of each other and than merge. Children must use language to communicate with others before they can focus inward on their own thoughts. Vygotsky's theory can be incorporated in classrooms in the following way: 1. assess the child's ZPD Assess the child's ZPD (Vygotsky's theory) assessment should focus on determining the child's zone of proximal development; they should present the child with tasks of varying difficulties to determine the best level at which to begin instruction. (not as todays' assessments) Use the child's ZPD in teaching (Vygotsky's theory) teaching should begin toward the zone's upper Use more-skilled peers as teachers (Vygotsky's theory) it has many benefits to involve children and not only adults as more-skilled person; Monitor & encourage children's use of private speech (Vygotsky's theory) as in the elementary school years there is the change between externally talking to oneself and Place instruction in a meaningful context (Vygotsky's theory) provide opportunities to experience learning in real-world settings. Transform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas learning should take place in small groups + should spend at least 20 mins in a setting, called 'center one', where scaffolding (teacher asks questions, responds, builds on ideas...) is used to improve children's literary skills. This type of classroom method has shown effective positive results. Evaluating Vygotsky's theory, conclusions 1.
Importance of inner speech Criticisms of Vygotsky Theory: -he was not specific enough about age-related changes; Vygotsky and Piaget Recommended textbook solutions
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Which of the following is most characteristic of Piaget's stage of formal operational thought?The formal operational stage is characterized by the ability to formulatehypotheses and systematically test them to arrive at an answer to a problem. The individual in the formal stage is also able to think abstractly and tounderstand the form or structure of a mathematical problem.
Which of the following are characteristic of adolescent thought in the formal operational stage?During the formal operational stage, adolescents are able to understand abstract principles which have no physical reference. They can now contemplate such abstract constructs as beauty, love, freedom, and morality. The adolescent is no longer limited by what can be directly seen or heard.
What type of reasoning characterizes the concreteThe concrete-operational stage depicts an important step in the cognitive development of children (Piaget, 1947). According to Piaget, thinking in this stage is characterized by logical operations, such as conservation, reversibility or classification, allowing logical reasoning.
Which of the following is an important ability in concreteOne of the key characteristics of the concrete-operational stage is the ability to focus on many parts of a problem.
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True or false: assimilation dominates the initial development of formal operational thought.
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