Describe the biological underpinnings of motivation, including needs, drives, and homeostasis.

VIII. Motivation and Emotion (6–8%)In this part of the course, students explore biological and social factors that motivate behavior and biologicaland cultural factors that influence emotion. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following:Identify and apply basic motivational concepts to understand the behavior of humans and other animals(e.g., instincts, incentives, intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation).Discuss the biological underpinnings of motivation, including needs, drives, and homeostasis.Compare and contrast motivational theories (e.g., drive reduction theory, arousal theory, generaladaptation theory), including the strengths and weaknesses of each.Describe classic research findings in specific motivation systems (e.g., eating, sex, social)Discuss theories of stress and the effects of stress on psychological and physical well-being.Compare and contrast major theories of emotion (e.g., James–Lange, Cannon– Bard, Schachter two-factor theory).

Presentation on theme: "Chapter 10: Motivation and Emotion"— Presentation transcript:

1 Chapter 10: Motivation and Emotion
James Heflin Chapter 10: Motivation and Emotion

2 Motivation and Emotion (6-8%)
In this part of the course, students explore biological and social factors that motivate behavior and biological and cultural factors that influence emotion. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: Identify and apply basic motivational concepts to understand the behavior of humans and other animals (e.g., instincts, incentives, intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation). Discuss the biological underpinnings of motivation, including needs, drives, and homeostasis. Compare and contrast motivational theories (e.g., drive reduction theory, arousal theory, general adaptation theory), including the strengths and weaknesses of each. Describe classic research findings in specific motivation systems (e.g., eating, sex, social) Discuss theories of stress and the effects of stress on psychological and physical well-being. Compare and contrast major theories of emotion (e.g., James–Lange, Cannon–Bard, Schachter two-factor theory).

3 Why do we do what we do? What motivates you? Let’s Brainstorm!

4 Motivational Theories and Concepts
Motives needs, wants, desires leading to goal-directed behavior Motives are the needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel people toward behavior. Drive theories hold that motivation is based in an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension…organisms seek to maintain homeostasis, or a state of equilibrium or stability. Incentive theories hold that motivation is regulated by external stimuli…ice cream, an A, money, etc. Evolutionary theories hold that natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success…explains affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of adaptive value.

5 Drive theories seeking homeostasis ( a state of phsysiological equilibrium or stability) Drive (an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension) Drive Reduction Theory- physiological need creates a psychological state that pushes the organism to behave in ways to reduce the need Cannot explain all motives (thirst for knowledge) Primary Drive (biological needs) Secondary Drive (learned- money can buy food)

6 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943)
​Physiological needs ​to satisfy drives for hunger, thirst, and sex ​Safety needs ​to feel safe, secure, and out of danger ​Belonging and love needs ​to be accepted and belong ​Esteem needs ​to achieve and to gain approval and recognition ​Self-actualization needs ​to achieve your unique potential

7 Evolutionary theories
Incentive theories Incentive (external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior) regulation by external stimuli Push (internal) pull (external) Intrinsic (internal) vs extrinsic (external) Evolutionary theories Natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex drive INSTINCT THEORY- complex behaviors that aren’t learned & can be explained by genetic predispositions

8 Arousal Theory We seek an optimum level of excitement or arousal
some behaviors are motivating because they increase arousal and vice versa Yerkes-Dodson Law We might perform well at an easy task at a very high arousal level The same high level would worsen our performance on a difficult task

9 Yerkes Dodson

10 Cognitive Consistency Theory
Motivation is produced from internal conflict Cognitive Dissonance Beliefs that are in opposition often produce conflict (cognitive dissonance) Beliefs counter to some behavior produces conflict The individual is motivated to reduce conflict by modifying or changing beliefs or behavior Experiments in Lying

11 Achievement Motivation
A learned motive that promotes the individual to find challenging tasks in which to succeed Intrinsic v. Extrinsic Motivation Internal motivation-motivation giving an individual satisfaction in and of itself External motivation-motivation coming from a source outside oneself Parenting Characteristics that enhance achievement motivation Encourage children to attempt difficult tasks Provide strategies for success Give praise and appropriate rewards for success Cultural Influences Collectivist societies encourage group success Individualistic societies encourage individual success People Vary in Need for Achievement (refer to motivation theories)

12 Management Styles- Theory X vs Theory Y
Theory X managers assume that workers are lazy, error prone and extrinsically motivated by money. Theory Y managers assume that people are intrinsically motivated, have pride in their work and fulfill their potential. What type of manager might you be?

13 Affiliation- need to be apart of a group
In times of stress and fear, we tend to want to affiliate. Too little affiliation (as in isolation) causes people to become anxious. Power- desire to have impact on other people

14 When Motives Conflict ​​When Motives Conflict
​Approach-approach conflict ​you must choose between two desirable outcomes ​Avoidance-avoidance conflict ​you must choose between two unattractive outcomes ​Approach-avoidance conflict ​one event or goal has both attractive and unattractive features ​Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts you must choose between two or more things, each of which has both desirable and undesirable features

15 Figure 10.2 The diversity of human motives

16 The Motivation of Hunger and Eating: Biological Factors
Brain regulation Lateral hypothalamus makes you hungry; is lesioned rats do not eat (see rat on right below) Ventromedial hypothalamus converts incoming food into fat, have to keep eating to meet energy needs; if lesioned rats get fat. (see rat on left below) In the early 1900’s, Walter Cannon and A.L. Washburn hypothesized that there is an association between stomach contractions and the experience of hunger; Cannon hypothesized a causal relationship, yet people who have their stomachs removed still experience hunger. This realization led to more complicated theories focusing on the brain, blood sugar, and hormones. Research in the 40’s and 50’s showed that the hypothalamus, particularly two areas called the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH), are important in hunger. The LH was thought to be the hunger center, while the VMH was thought to be the satiety center. Subsequent research indicated that this was an oversimplified picture, although the LH and VMH are part of the hunger circuit, they are not the key elements. The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus has recently been implicated as another influential part of the hunger circuit. Other research has focused on the role of blood glucose and digestive regulation on hunger; when blood sugar goes down, hunger goes up. Glucostatic theory proposed that fluctuations in blood glucose level are monitored in the brain by glucostats – neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid. It appears likely that hunger is regulated, in part, through glucostatic mechanisms. Hormones circulating in the blood also appear to be related to hunger. Insulin, secreted by the pancreas, must be present for cells to use blood glucose. Increases in insulin increase hunger, and the mere sight and smell of food has been shown to increase insulin. Recently, a new hormone, leptin, has been discovered to be released from fat cells into the bloodstream. Leptin is believed to signal the hypothalamus about fat stores in the body, causing decreases in hunger when fat stores are high.

17 Contemporary theories focus more on neural circuits that pass through the hypothalamus rather than on the anatomical centers in the brain

18 Figure 10.3 The hypothalamus

19 Glucose and Digestive Centers
Glucose (simple sugar that is an important source of energy Glucostats ( neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid) Some believe that glucostatic mechanisms may contribute to the modulation of eating

20 Hormonal Regulation Insulin (hormone secreted by the pancreas), levels increase when you eat, even the sight/smell can cause secretion Leptin (produced by fat cells and provide information about the body’s fat stores)

21 10 Minutes to study for your reading quiz

22 The Motivation of Hunger and Eating: Environmental Factors
Learned preferences and habits Palatability Quantity available Variety Presence of others When/how and cultural differences Food-related cues Appearance, odor, effort required Stress Link between heightened arousal/negative emotion and overeating Clearly, hunger is related to biology; however, it is also regulated by environmental factors like learned preferences. Studies show that people like foods that are familiar to them; dog meat is a delicacy in some parts of the world. Exposure and observational learning appear to play a part in what we like to eat. Learning also appears to influence when and how much people eat. Food related cues are environmental cues that have been associated with eating, such as the appearance or odor of food, the effort required to eat a particular food, etc. Research shows that these external cues influence eating behavior to some extent, beyond biological hunger. Finally, stress has been shown to be related to increased eating, with some research indicating that chronic dieters are more likely to respond to stress with eating. It is unclear whether stress induced eating is caused by physiological arousal or negative emotion. It is also unclear whether the effects of stress on hunger are direct or indirect.

23 Eating and Weight: The Roots of Obesity
Evolutionary explanations  Obesity (being overweight) Genetic predisposition Body Mass Index and adoption study Genetics influence 61% for men, 73% for women Dietary restraint Can actually lead to obesity BMI Calculator BMI Chart Obesity is the condition of being overweight. Criteria differ, but one definition assumes that people are overweight if their weight exceeds their ideal body weight by 20%. Obesity is a significant health problem, elevating mortality risk. Evolutionary explanations for increases in the prevalence of obesity are based in food supply changes. Whereas most animals evolved in environments where competition for food was fierce and food supplies were unreliable, the vast majority of humans now live in environments where food is abundant and reliable. Research suggests that some people can eat more than others without gaining weight and that this may have a genetic basis. When adults raised by foster parents are compared to biological and foster parents in regard to BMI (weight in kilograms divided by height in meters, squared), adoptees resemble biological parents, not adoptive. Twin studies suggest that genetic factors account for 61% of the variation in body weight among men and 73% among women. Lose weight on a diet, gain it back. The reverse is also true. Intentionally put on weight and have a hard time keeping it on. Richard Keesy, 1995, suggests that our bodies have a set point, or natural point of stability in body weight. This appears to be related to fat cell levels…when fat stores slip below a crucial level, hunger increases and metabolism decreases. Settling-point theory (Pinel, et al., 2000) alternatively proposes that weight hovers near the level at which the constellation of factors that determine food consumption and energy expenditure achieve an equilibrium. Thus, according to this theory, weight remains stable as long as there are no durable changes in any of the factors that influence it. Researchers have also shown that dietary restraint may contribute to obesity. Chronic dieters restrain themselves from eating and go hungry much of the time, but they are constantly thinking about food. When they give in, they become disinhibited and eat to excess…the “I’ve already blown it” problem.

24 Figure 10.5 The heritability of weight

25 Motivated to starve Pro Ana Tumblr

26 Garcia Effect and Eating Disorders
Garcia Effect…Remember this one? Bulemia- binging and purging Anorexia Nervosa- refusing to eat

27 Sexual Motivation and Behavior: Determining Desire
Hormonal regulation Estrogens – more present in females Testosterone – more present in males Testosterone is correlated with higher rates of sexual activity in males & females Some studies link it to males having sex at earlier age, greater drive, more partners & affairs Hormones exert considerable influence on sexual behavior in many animals, but human sexuality is influenced by much more than hormones. Research suggests that hormones do have at least a small role in human sexual behavior, as testosterone fluctuations are correlated with sexual activity. A pheromone is a chemical secreted by one animal that affects the behavior of another, usually detected through the sense of smell. Research on pheromones in humans is inconclusive with regard to sexual desire; however, they have been linked to synchronized ovulation among women who live together. Aphrodisiacs are substances thought to increase sexual desire. Research shows that oysters, vitamin E, etc., have no real impact on sexual desire. Pharmaceutical companies are, however, working on developing aphrodisiacs, and there are promising leads. Viagra is not a sexual stimulant, improving performance, not desire. Erotic materials have been shown to elevate sexual desire only for a few hours, but they may have an enduring effect on attitudes about sex. Aggressive pornography may make sexual coercion seem less offensive and may contribute to date rape. Attraction to a partner is a critical determinant of sexual interest. The phenomenon of a new sexual partner reviving sexual interest is termed the Coolidge effect. Evolutionary factors in human sexual behavior are theorized to hinge on parental investment, with females being more discriminating in choosing partners and less likely to engage in casual sex. This has been used to explain sex differences such as males thinking about sex more frequently, males emphasizing youthfulness and attractiveness in a potential partner, and females emphasizing status and financial prospects in a potential partner.

28 Sexual Motivation and Behavior: Determining Desire
Pornography Increases sexual activity for a few hours after viewing Very minor role in sexual offenses Tends to alter attitudes of men and women toward sex Exposure to “aggressive” pornography causes aggressive attitude towards women & rape Attraction to a Partner The Coolidge Effect Tendency for males to prefer multiple partners

29 Parental Investment Theory
-The amount of investment needed to produce and nurture offspring in relation to mating patterns in animals Figure Parental investment theory and mating preferences

30 Gender Differences in Sexual Patterns
Clark & Hatfield (1989) All participants were college aged Average looking males approached females with a proposition of sex. 0% of females agreed. Average looking females approached males with a proposition of sex. 75% of males agreed. Moral of the Story: Men are Pigs  (JK)

31 Figure 10.8 The gender gap in how much people think about sex

32 Figure 10.10 Gender and potential mates’ financial prospects

33 Figure 10.11 Gender and potential mates’ physical attractiveness

34 The Mystery of Sexual Orientation
Heterosexual – Bisexual – Homosexual A continuum Theories explaining homosexuality Environmental Biological Interactionist Gender Identity v. Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex (homosexuality), the other sex (heterosexuality), or either sex (bisexuality). Recent conceptualizations of sexuality hold that homosexuality and heterosexuality are endpoints on a continuum. Data on the prevalence of homosexuality suggests that 5-8% of the population may have a homosexual orientation. Many environmental theories explaining homosexuality have been put forth historically. Freud held that a person must identify with the same sexed parent, or homosexuality results. Behaviorists assert that homosexuality is learned through conditioning. Research has failed to support either theory. What has been found is that most men and women with homosexual orientations can trace their leanings back to early childhood, suggesting a biological basis. Biological research suggests that there is a genetic predisposition to homosexuality, possibly based on the X chromosome. Anatomical differences between gay and straight men in the size of the anterior hypothalamus have also been found. This structure is larger in men than in women, and this study showed that gay men had a 50% smaller AH than straight men. Some theorists believe that anatomical brain differences such as these may be due to the organizing effects of prenatal hormones on neurological development. The interactionist view holds that genes and prenatal hormones shape a child’s temperament, which initiates a chain of events that ultimately shapes sexual orientation.

35 Figure 10.12 Homosexuality and heterosexuality as endpoints on a continuum

36 Figure 10.13 How common is homosexuality?

37 Figure 10.14 Genetics and sexual orientation

38 The Human Sexual Response
Masters and Johnson – 1966 Stages: Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution William Masters and Virginia Johnson conducted groundbreaking research in the 1960s, using physiological recording devices to monitor the bodily changes of volunteers engaging in sexual activity. They outlined 4 stages in the sexual response cycle. The excitement phase is the initial arousal, which escalates quickly. Muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate and blood pressure increase. Vasocongestion – engorgement of blood vessels occurs in the genitals. The plateau phase occurs when physiological arousal continues to build, but at a slower pace. The orgasm phase occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area. The subjective experience of orgasm is very similar for men and women, although women can be multiorgasmic. On the other hand, they are more likely to engage in intercourse without experiencing an orgasm. The resolution phase is characterized by subsiding physiological arousal. Men experience a refractory period after orgasm, when they are largely unresponsive to further stimulation. This may last from a few minutes to a few hours and increases with age.

39 Figure 10.15 The human sexual response cycle

40 Figure 10.16 The gender gap in orgasm consistency

41 Achievement Motivation
Achievement motive = need to excel Work harder and more persistently Delay gratification (Marshmallow Test) Pursue competitive careers Situational influences on achievement motives Thematic Apperception Test What Motivates Us Achievement motivation involves the need to excel, especially in competition with others. People who are relatively high in the need for achievement work harder and more persistently, they tend to delay gratification well and to pursue competitive careers. Both affiliation and achievement motivation are generally measured using the TAT, a projective test which requires a subject to write or tell stories about what is happening in pictures of people in ambiguous scenes. Situational factors have been shown to influence achievement motivation, causing it to increase when the probability of success and the incentive value of success are high. Additionally, the pursuit of achievement can be influenced by a fear of failure, so that the motive to avoid failure stimulates achievement.

42 The Elements of Emotional Experience
Cognitive component Subjective conscious experience Positive psychology Physiological component Bodily (autonomic) arousal Behavioral component Characteristic overt expressions Body Language How To Spot A Liar The cognitive component of emotion involves subjective feelings that have an evaluative aspect…a cognitive appraisal of an event is an important element in emotional experience. Researchers have, in the past, focused primarily on negative emotions, consistent with the bias in the field of psychology toward studying pathology, weakness, and suffering. In recent years, however, a group of psychologists have advocated for positive psychology…increasing research on contentment, well-being, human strength, and positive emotion. The physiological arousal associated with emotion occurs through the actions of the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for the highly emotional fight-or-flight response. The galvanic skin response (GSR) measures autonomic activation – the device that measures autonomic fluctuations while a person is questioned is called a polygraph or lie detector (really an emotion detector). Polygraph tests measure emotion, which may or may not be due to deceit; they are inaccurate often enough that they are deemed not reliable enough to be submitted as evidence in most types of courtrooms. In the brain, the limbic system is the emotional circuit (the hypothalamus, the amygdala, and adjacent structures); Joseph LeDoux (1996) has shown that the amygdala plays a particularly central role in modulating emotions. Behaviorally, emotions are expressed through body language and facial expressions. Research indicates considerable cross-cultural similarities in the ability to differentiate facial expressions of emotion. The facial-feedback hypothesis holds that facial muscles send signals to the brain that help it recognize the emotion being experienced…smile and feel better. Cross-cultural similarities have also been found in the cognitive and behavioral components, although display rules, or norms for regulating appropriate expression of emotion, vary from culture to culture.

43 Figure 10.20 The amygdala and fear

44 Figure Cross-cultural comparisons of people’s ability to recognize emotions from facial expressions

45 Theories of Emotion James-Lange Cannon-Bard
Feel afraid because pulse is racing Cannon-Bard Thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and the autonomic nervous system Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory Look to external cues to decide what to feel Evolutionary Theories Innate reactions with little cognitive interpretation The James-Lange theory of emotion holds that you see a snake, your pulse races, and you feel afraid because your pulse is racing. The Cannon-Bard theory holds that you see a snake, the information is sent to the thalamus, which relays the signals simultaneously to the cortex and to the autonomic nervous system. Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory holds that you feel autonomic arousal and look around to see why…if there’s a snake you feel fear. Misattribution of arousal can occur when people misinterpret their autonomic arousal. Dutton and Aron (1974) conducted a study where they arranged for young men crossing two bridges to meet an attractive female with a questionnaire in hand…one bridge was 10 feet above a stream, while the other was a swaying, 230 foot suspension bridge. The suspension bridge men called the woman for a date significantly more often than the low bridge men, suggesting misattribution of arousal as attraction rather than fear. Evolutionary theories of emotion assume that emotions are innate reactions that require little cognitive interpretation. Robert Plutchik (1984, 1993) has devised a model of how primary emotions blend together to form secondary emotions.

46 Figure 10.23 Theories of emotion

47 Figure 10.24 Primary emotions

48 Happiness Common sense notions incorrect
Income, age, parenthood, intelligence, and attractiveness largely uncorrelated Physical health, good social relationships, religious faith, and culture modestly correlated Love, marriage, work satisfaction, and personality strongly correlated Subjective rather than objective reality important Research on happiness indicates that common sense notions about what makes people happy are largely incorrect. Income, age, parenthood, intelligence, and attractiveness are largely uncorrelated with happiness. Physical health, good social relationships, religious faith, and culture are modestly correlated with happiness. Love, marriage, work satisfaction, and personality are the only factors shown to be strongly predictive of happiness. Research indicates that subjective rather than objective reality is what is important in deciding happiness.

49 Figure 10.27 The subjective well-being of nations

50 Figure 10.29 Possible causal relations among the correlates of happiness

51 Stress

What are the biological underpinnings of motivation?

How are drives and homeostasis related to motivation?

What is homeostasis theory of motivation?

What is human biological needs and drives?