Why is change management a significant challenge for many organizations during enterprise system implementation?

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• Why would an organization want to move their enterprise system to the cloud group of answer choices?
• Why companies replace parts of their legacy systems or supplement them with enterprise systems?
• What is an enterprise system quizlet?
• How are predictive analytics and machine learning related quizlet?

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Models of business strategy, competitive advantages, and their relationship to processes and IS are unlikely to change in the next 10 years. They may evolve, there may be some new models that rise to the surface, but those new models are likely to be extensions of existing models, within the existing paradigms. What is likely to change, however, is pace. Because of the Internet and related technology, the speed of business is accelerating. The Web, Twitter, Facebook, and other social sites enable the rapid spread of new ideas and innovations and require businesses to be constantly on the alert for changes that may affect their strategy in short periods of time.

An ERP solution includes a database design as well as initial configuration data. It does not, of course, contain the company's operational data. During development, the team must enter the initial values for that data as part of the development effort. SAP, the leading vendor of ERP solutions, provides ERP databases that contain over 15,000 tables. The design includes the metadata for those tables, as well as their relationships to each other, and rules and constraints about how the data in some tables must relate to data in other tables. The ERP solution also contains tables filled with initial configuration data.Large organizational databases contain two types of program code. The first, called a trigger, is a computer program stored within the database that runs to keep the database consistent when certain conditions arise. The second, called a stored procedure, is a computer program stored in the database that is used to enforce business rules. An example of such a rule would be never to sell certain items at a discount. Triggers and stored procedures are also part of the ERP solution. Developers and business users need to configure the operation of such code during the ERP implementation as well.

First, senior-level management needs to communicate the need for the change to the organization and reiterate this, as necessary, throughout the transition process. Second, employees fear change because it threatens self-efficacy, which is a person's belief that he or she can be successful at his or her job. To enhance confidence, employees need to be trained and coached on the successful use of the new system. Word-of-mouth is a very powerful factor, and in some cases key users are trained ahead of time to create positive buzz about the new system. Video demonstrations of employees successfully using the new system are also effective. Third, in many ways, the primary benefits of a new ERP system are felt by the accounting and finance departments and the senior management. Many of the employees who are asked to change their activities to implement ERP will not receive any direct benefit from it. Therefore, employees may need to be given extra inducement to change to the new system. Implementing new enterprise systems can solve many problems and bring great efficiency and cost savings to an organization, but it is not for the faint of heart.

• Vendor in driver's seat-Each outsource vendor has methods and procedures for its service. The hiring organization and its employees will have to conform to those procedures.• Technology direction-Unless the contract requires otherwise, the outsource vendor chooses the technology that it wants to implement. If the vendor, for some reason, is slow to pick up on a significant new technology, then the hiring organization will be slow to attain benefits from that technology. An organization can find itself at a competitive disadvantage because it cannot offer the same information systems (IS) services as its competitors.• Potential loss of intellectual capital-The company may need to reveal proprietary trade secrets, methods, or procedures to the outsource vendor's employees.• Product fixes, enhancements in wrong priority-Quality vendors track software failures and problems and fix them according to a set of priorities. When a company outsources a system, it no longer has control over prioritizing those fixes. Such control belongs to the vendor. A fix that might be critical to the organization might be of low priority to the outsource vendor.• Vendor management, direction, or identity changes-The outsource vendor may change management, adopt a different strategic direction, or be acquired. When any of those changes occur, priorities may change, and an outsource vendor that was a good choice at one time might be a bad fit after it changes direction. It can be difficult and expensive to change an outsource vendor when this occurs.• Chief information officer (CIO) may become superfluous-When users need a critical service that is outsourced, the CIO must turn to the vendor for a response. In time, users learn that it is quicker to deal directly with the outsource vendor, and soon the CIO is out of the communication loop. At that point, the vendor has essentially replaced the CIO, who has become a figurehead.

Business process management (BPM) is a cyclical process for systematically creating, assessing, and altering business processes. This cycle begins by creating a model of the existing business process, called an as-is model. Then, business users who are involved in the process and business and systems analysts evaluate that model and make improvements. The next stage is to create system components. In this activity, the team designs changes to the business process at a depth sufficient for implementation. If the business process involves new information systems, or changes to existing information systems, then systems development projects are created and managed at this stage. In the third stage, new business processes or changes to existing business processes are implemented. Here, process actors are trained on the activities that they will perform and on the IS procedures that they will use. In the assessment stage, policy, procedures, and committees are created to continually assess business process effectiveness. The Information Systems Audit and Control Association has created a set of standard practices called COBIT (Control Objectives for Information and related Technology) that are often used in the assessment stage of the BPM cycle. When the assessment process indicates that a significant need for change has arisen, the BPM cycle is repeated and adjusted. New process models are developed, and components are created, implemented, and assessed.

The key aspects to developing successful systems development life cycle (SDLC) include:• Create a work breakdown structure-Successful project managers break large projects into smaller tasks until each task is small enough to estimate and to manage. Every task should culminate in one or more results called deliverables. Tasks are interrelated, and to prevent them from becoming confusing, project teams create a work breakdown structure (WBS), which is a hierarchy of the tasks required to complete a project.• Estimate time and costs-It is exceedingly difficult to determine duration and labor requirements for many development tasks. Organizations take a variety of approaches to this challenge. One is to avoid scheduling problems altogether and never develop systems and software in-house. Instead, they license packages, such as ERP systems, that include both business processes and information systems components. If no suitable package exists, companies can admit the impossibility of scheduling a date for the completion of the entire system and take the best result they can get. The third approach is to attempt to schedule the development project in spite of all the difficulties.• Create a project plan-A project plan is a list of WBS tasks, arranged to account for task dependencies, with durations and resources applied. Some tasks cannot be started or finished until other tasks are completed. Given dependencies, estimates for task duration and resource requirements are then applied to the WBS to form a project plan. The critical path is the sequence of activities that determine the earliest date by which the project can be completed. The earliest date is the date determined by considering the longest path through the network of activities. Paying attention to task dependencies, the planner will compress the tasks as much as possible. Those tasks that cannot be further compressed lie on the critical path.• Adjust the plan via trade-offs-The project plan for the entire project results in a finish date and a total cost. Schedules and costs can be responsibly reduced by considering trade-offs. A trade-off is a balancing of three critical factors: requirements, cost, and time.• Manage development challenges-Nothing ever goes according to plan, and the larger the project and the longer the development interval, the more things will violate the plan. Four critical factors need to be considered:- Coordination- Diseconomies of scale- Configuration control- Unexpected events

The various tools used to meet the complexities of planning IS projects are work breakdown structures, Gantt charts, and critical paths. Tasks are interrelated, and to prevent them from becoming confusing, project teams create a work breakdown structure (WBS), which is a hierarchy of the tasks required to complete a project. The WBS for a large project is huge; it might entail hundreds or even thousands of tasks. Once the project is decomposed into small tasks, the next step is to define task dependencies and to estimate task durations. Task dependencies are normally input to planning software such as Microsoft Project. One of the tools used is a Gantt chart, which shows tasks, dates, and dependencies. Another tool used is a critical path, which is the sequence of activities that determines the earliest date by which the project can be completed. Critical path analysis is the process by which project managers compress the schedule by moving resources, typically people, from noncritical path tasks onto critical path tasks.

Nothing ever goes according to plan; the larger the project and the longer the development interval, the more things will violate the plan. Four critical factors need to be considered:1. Coordination2. Diseconomies of scale3. Configuration control4. Unexpected eventsCoordination-Development projects, especially large-scale projects, are usually organized into a variety of development groups that work independently. Coordinating the work of these independent groups can be difficult, particularly if the groups reside in different geographic locations or different countries. An accurate and complete WBS facilitates coordination, but no project ever proceeds exactly in accordance with the WBS. Delays occur, and unknown or unexpected dependencies develop among tasks.Diseconomies of scale-The number of possible interactions among team members rises exponentially with the number of team members. Ultimately, no matter how well managed a project is, diseconomies of scale will set in.Configuration control-As the project proceeds, controlling the configuration of the work product becomes difficult. The development team produces an initial statement of requirements. Meetings with users produce an adjusted set of requirements. An event could occur necessitating a change to requirements. Similar problems occur with designs, program code, database data, and other system components. The term configuration control refers to a set of management policies, practices, and tools that developers use to maintain control over the project's resources. Such resources include documents, schedules, designs, program code, test suites, and any other shared resource needed to complete the project.Unexpected events-The last major challenge to large-scale project management is unexpected events. The larger and longer the project, the greater the chance of disruption due to an unanticipated event.

First, scrum and the other agile techniques expect and even welcome change. Because systems are created to help organizations and people achieve their strategies, and the more the requirements change, the closer they come to facilitating strategies. The result is better and more satisfying for both the users and the development team. Second, scrum and other agile development processes are designed to frequently deliver a working version of some part of the product. Frequently means one to eight weeks, not longer. This frequency means that management is at risk only for whatever costs and time have been consumed in that period. And, at the end of the period, they will have some usable product piece that has at least some value to the business. The third principle is that the development team will work closely with the customer, until the project ends. Someone who knows the business requirements must be available to the development team and must be able and willing to clearly express, clarify, and elaborate on requirements. Also, customers need to be available to test the evolving work product and provide guidance on how well new features work. The fourth principle is a tough one for many developers to accept. Rather than design the complete, overall system at the beginning, only those portions of the design that are needed to complete the current work are done. Sometimes this is called just-in-time design. Finally, agile development methodologies are generic. They can be applied to the creation of business processes, information systems, and applications.

Scrum is particularly innovative because of the way tasks are scheduled in it. Scrum methodology recognizes that developers are terrible, even wretched, at determining how long a task will take. However, developers are quite good at determining how long something will take in comparison to something else. So, while a developer may be poor at estimating the time required to do, say, some Task 2, he or she will likely be accurate when saying that Task 2 will take twice as long as Task 1, or some other ratio.So, according to the scrum process, once the tasks are known for a given set of requirements, the next step is to assign each task a difficulty score, called points. The easiest task has a point score of 1. A task that will take five times longer is given a point score of 5, etc. Points are expressed in values from a sequence of integers known as the Fibonacci sequence: {1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, and ?}. The question mark is used because any number larger than 144 is meaningless. Most likely 89 and 144 are meaningless as well. Tasks with such point scores need to be subdivided into multiple requirements. When all tasks have received points, the points are summed to a total for the requirement.As teams work together, they will learn the total number of points of work they can accomplish each scrum period. That term is called the team's velocity. The team uses its velocity to determine how many requirements it can commit to accomplishing in the next scrum period. The team uses its estimates of points per scrum period for scheduling.

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