Why did so many reform initiatives of the early twentieth century emerge in large cities What were some of those initiatives and what was their political impact?

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Among the poor, overcrowding, crime, poor sanitation and the disease that accompanied it, pollution, endemic alcoholism, domestic violence, illiteracy, child abuse and neglect, illegal abortions, and an utter lack of health care or criminal justice. Gangs and police corruption were rife. The conditions of the slum tenements made today's run-down housing projects for the poor look like Paradise. Hundreds of people relied on a single hand pump for their water supplies. There was no electricity, gas, or heating

Cities around 1900 enabled new sorts of associations to be formed, because they concentrated factory owners, writers, artists, workers, women, non-conformists, gay men, black people, immigrants and so on, because they bring them into contact with each other and hold them in contact. New types of 'public' emerged in cities, and that formed all sorts of new types of associations pushing agendas that had to be mediated between. 'Reform' was an attempt to reconcile these different agendas. In the countryside, such complex agendas cannot emerge (not enough people with similar agendas meet each other), and are hard to promote if they do emerge.

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