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In software and systems engineering, the phrase use case is a polyseme with two senses:
This article discusses the latter sense. A use case is a list of actions or event steps typically defining the interactions between a role (known in the Unified Modeling Language (UML) as an actor) and a system to achieve a goal. The actor can be a human or other external system. In systems engineering, use cases are used at a higher level than within software engineering, often representing missions or stakeholder goals. The detailed requirements may then be captured in the Systems Modeling Language (SysML) or as contractual statements. History[edit]In 1987, Ivar Jacobson presented the first article on use cases at the OOPSLA'87 conference.[1] He described how this technique was used at Ericsson to capture and specify requirements of a system using textual, structural, and visual modeling techniques to drive object oriented analysis and design.[2] Originally he had used the terms usage scenarios and usage case – the latter a direct translation of his Swedish term användningsfall – but found that neither of these terms sounded natural in English, and eventually he settled on use case.[3] In 1992 he co-authored the book Object-Oriented Software Engineering - A Use Case Driven Approach,[4] which laid the foundation of the OOSE system engineering method and helped to popularize use cases for capturing functional requirements, especially in software development. In 1994 he published a book about use cases and object-oriented techniques applied to business models and business process reengineering.[5] At the same time, Grady Booch and James Rumbaugh worked at unifying their object-oriented analysis and design methods, the Booch method and Object Modeling Technique (OMT) respectively. In 1995 Ivar Jacobson joined them and together they created the Unified Modelling Language (UML), which includes use case modeling. UML was standardized by the Object Management Group (OMG) in 1997.[6] Jacobson, Booch and Rumbaugh also worked on a refinement of the Objectory software development process. The resulting Unified Process was published in 1999 and promoted a use case driven approach.[7] Since then, many authors have contributed to the development of the technique, notably: Larry Constantine developed in 1995, in the context of usage-centered design, so called "essential use-cases" that aim to describe user intents rather than sequences of actions or scenarios which might constrain or bias the design of user interface;[8] Alistair Cockburn published in 2000 a goal-oriented use case practice based on text narratives and tabular specifications;[9] Kurt Bittner and Ian Spence developed in 2002 advanced practices for analyzing functional requirements with use cases;[10] Dean Leffingwell and Don Widrig proposed to apply use cases to change management and stakeholder communication activities;[11] Gunnar Overgaard proposed in 2004 to extend the principles of design patterns to use cases.[12] In 2011, Jacobson published with Ian Spence and Kurt Bittner the ebook Use Case 2.0 to adapt the technique to an agile context, enriching it with incremental use case "slices", and promoting its use across the full development lifecycle[13] after having presented the renewed approach at the annual IIBA conference.[14][15] General principle[edit]Use cases are a technique for capturing, modelling and specifying the requirements of a system.[10] A use case corresponds to a set of behaviours that the system may perform in interaction with its actors, and which produces an observable result that contribute to its goals. Actors represent the role that human users or other systems have in the interaction. In the requirement analysis, at their identification, a use case is named according to the specific user-goal that it represents for its primary actor. The case is further detailed with a textual description or with additional graphical models that explains the general sequence of activities and events, as well as variants such as special conditions, exceptions or error situations. According to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK),[16] use cases belong to the scenario-based requirement elicitation techniques, as well as the model-based analysis techniques. But the use cases also supports narrative-based requirement gathering, incremental requirement acquisition, system documentation, and acceptance testing.[1] Variations[edit]There are different kinds of use cases and variations in the technique:
Scope[edit]The scope of a use case can be defined by subject and by goals:
Usage[edit]Use cases are known to be applied in the following contexts:
Templates[edit]There are many ways to write a use case in text, from use case brief, casual, outline, to fully dressed etc., and with varied templates. Writing use cases in templates devised by various vendors or experts is a common industry practice to get high-quality functional system requirements. Cockburn style[edit]The template defined by Alistair Cockburn in his book Writing Effective Use Cases has been one of the most widely used writing styles of use cases.[citation needed] Design scopes[edit]Cockburn suggests annotating each use case with a symbol to show the "Design Scope", which may be black-box (internal detail is hidden) or white-box (internal detail is shown). Five symbols are available:[20]
Other authors sometimes call use cases at Organization level "Business use cases".[21] Goal levels[edit]Cockburn suggests annotating each use case with a symbol to show the "Goal Level";[22] the preferred level is "User-goal" (or colloquially "sea level"[23]: 101 ).
Sometimes in text writing, a use case name followed by an alternative text symbol (!, +, -, etc.) is a more concise and convenient way to denote levels, e.g. place an order!, login-. Fully dressed[edit]Cockburn describes a more detailed structure for a use case, but permits it to be simplified when less detail is needed. His fully dressed use case template lists the following fields:[24]
In addition, Cockburn suggests using two devices to indicate the nature of each use case: icons for design scope and goal level. Cockburn's approach has influenced other authors; for example, Alexander and Beus-Dukic generalize Cockburn's "Fully dressed use case" template from software to systems of all kinds, with the following fields differing from Cockburn:[26]
Casual[edit]Cockburn recognizes that projects may not always need detailed "fully dressed" use cases. He describes a Casual use case with the fields:[24]
Fowler style[edit]Martin Fowler states "There is no standard way to write the content of a use case, and different formats work well in different cases."[23]: 100 He describes "a common style to use" as follows:[23]: 101
The Fowler style can also be viewed as a simplified variant of the Cockburn template. This variant is called a user story. Alistair Cockburn stated:[27]
Martin Fowler stated:[28]
Actors[edit]A use case defines the interactions between external actors and the system under consideration to accomplish a goal. Actors must be able to make decisions, but need not be human: "An actor might be a person, a company or organization, a computer program, or a computer system—hardware, software, or both."[29] Actors are always stakeholders, but not all stakeholders are actors, since they may "never interact directly with the system, even though they have the right to care how the system behaves."[29] For example, "the owners of the system, the company's board of directors, and regulatory bodies such as the Internal Revenue Service and the Department of Insurance" could all be stakeholders but are unlikely to be actors.[29] Similarly, a person using a system may be represented as different actors because of playing different roles. For example, user "Joe" could be playing the role of a Customer when using an Automated Teller Machine to withdraw cash from his own account, or playing the role of a Bank Teller when using the system to restock the cash drawer on behalf of the bank. Actors are often working on behalf of someone else. Cockburn writes that "These days I write 'sales rep for the customer' or 'clerk for the marketing department' to capture that the user of the system is acting for someone else." This tells the project that the "user interface and security clearances" should be designed for the sales rep and clerk, but that the customer and marketing department are the roles concerned about the results.[30] A stakeholder may play both an active and an inactive role: for example, a Consumer is both a "mass-market purchaser" (not interacting with the system) and a User (an actor, actively interacting with the purchased product).[31] In turn, a User is both a "normal operator" (an actor using the system for its intended purpose) and a "functional beneficiary" (a stakeholder who benefits from the use of the system).[31] For example, when user "Joe" withdraws cash from his account, he is operating the Automated Teller Machine and obtaining a result on his own behalf. Cockburn advises to look for actors among the stakeholders of a system, the primary and supporting (secondary) actors of a use case, the system under design (SuD) itself, and finally among the "internal actors", namely the components of the system under design.[29] Business use case[edit]In the same way that a use case describes a series of events and interactions between a user (or other type of Actor) and a system, in order to produce a result of value (goal), a business use case describes the more general interaction between a business system and the users/actors of that system to produce business results of value. The primary difference is that the system considered in a business use case model may contain people in addition to technological systems. These "people in the system" are called business workers. In the example of a restaurant, a decision must be made whether to treat each person as an actor (thus outside the system) or a business worker (inside the system). If a waiter is considered an actor, as shown in the example below, then the restaurant system does not include the waiter, and the model exposes the interaction between the waiter and the restaurant. An alternative would be to consider the waiter as a part of the restaurant system (a business worker), while considering the client to be outside the system (an actor).[32] A business Use case diagram depicts a model of several business use cases (goals) which represents the interactions between a restaurant (the business system) and its primary stakeholders (business actors and business workers). Visual modeling[edit]Use cases are not only texts, but also diagrams, if needed. In the Unified Modeling Language, the relationships between use cases and actors are represented in use case diagrams originally based upon Ivar Jacobson's Objectory notation. SysML uses the same notation at a system block level. In addition, other behavioral UML diagrams such as activity diagrams, sequence diagrams, communication diagrams and state machine diagrams can also be used to visualize use cases accordingly. Specifically, a System Sequence Diagram (SSD) is a sequence diagram often used to show the interactions between the external actors and the system under design (SuD), usually for visualizing a particular scenario of a use case. Use case analysis usually starts by drawing use case diagrams. For agile development, a requirement model of many UML diagrams depicting use cases plus some textual descriptions, notes or use case briefs would be very lightweight and just enough for small or easy project use. As good complements to use case texts, the visual diagram representations of use cases are also effective facilitating tools for the better understanding, communication and design of complex system behavioral requirements. Examples[edit]Below is a sample use case written with a slightly-modified version of the Cockburn-style template. Note that there are no buttons, controls, forms, or any other UI elements and operations in the basic use case description, where only user goals, subgoals or intentions are expressed in every step of the basic flow or extensions. This practice makes the requirement specification clearer, and maximizes the flexibility of the design and implementations. Use Case: Edit an article Primary Actor: Member (Registered User) Scope: a Wiki system Level: ! (User goal or sea level) Brief: (equivalent to a user story or an epic) The member edits any part (the entire article or just a section) of an article they are reading. Preview and changes comparison are allowed during the editing.Stakeholders ... Postconditions Minimal Guarantees:Success Guarantees:
Preconditions: The article with editing enabled is presented to the member.Triggers: The member invokes an edit request (for the full article or just one section) on the article.Basic flow:
Extensions: 2–3. a. Show preview:
4a. Timeout: ... Advantages[edit]Since the inception of the agile movement, the user story technique from Extreme Programming has been so popular that many think it is the only and best solution for agile requirements of all projects. Alistair Cockburn lists five reasons why he still writes use cases in agile development.[33]
In summary, specifying system requirements in use cases has these apparent benefits comparing with traditional or other approaches: User focused Use cases constitute a powerful, user-centric tool for the software requirements specification process.[34] Use case modeling typically starts from identifying key stakeholder roles (actors) interacting with the system, and their goals or objectives the system must fulfill (an outside perspective). These user goals then become the ideal candidates for the names or titles of the use cases which represent the desired functional features or services provided by the system. This user-centered approach ensure that what has the real business value and the user really want is developed, not those trivial functions speculated from a developer or system (inside) perspective. Use case authoring has been an important and valuable analysis tool in the domain of User-Centered Design (UCD) for years. Better communication Use cases are often written in natural languages with structured templates. This narrative textual form (legible requirement stories), understandable by almost everyone, complemented by visual UML diagrams foster better and deeper communications among all stakeholders, including customers, end-users, developers, testers and managers. Better communications result in quality requirements and thus quality systems delivered. Quality requirements by structured exploration One of the most powerful things about use cases resides in the formats of the use case templates, especially the main success scenario (basic flow) and the extension scenario fragments (extensions, exceptional and/or alternative flows). Analyzing a use case step by step from preconditions to postconditions, exploring and investigating every action step of the use case flows, from basic to extensions, to identify those tricky, normally hidden and ignored, seemingly trivial but realistically often costly requirements (as Cockburn mentioned above), is a structured and beneficial way to get clear, stable and quality requirements systematically. Minimizing and optimizing the action steps of a use case to achieve the user goal also contribute to a better interaction design and user experience of the system. Facilitate testing and user documentation With content based upon an action or event flow structure, a model of well-written use cases also serves as an excellent groundwork and valuable guidelines for the design of test cases and user manuals of the system or product, which is an effort-worthy investment up-front. There is obvious connections between the flow paths of a use case and its test cases. Deriving functional test cases from a use case through its scenarios (running instances of a use case) is straightforward.[35] Limitations[edit]Limitations of use cases include:
Misconceptions[edit]
Common misunderstandings about use cases are: User stories are agile; use cases are not. Agile and Scrum are neutral on requirement techniques. As the Scrum Primer[40] states,
Use case techniques have evolved to take Agile approaches into account by using use case slices to incrementally enrich a use case.[13] Use cases are mainly diagrams. Craig Larman stresses that "use cases are not diagrams, they are text".[41] Use cases have too much UI-related content. As some put it,[who?]
Novice misunderstandings. Each step of a well-written use case should present actor goals or intentions (the essence of functional requirements), and normally it should not contain any user interface details, e.g. naming of labels and buttons, UI operations etc., which is a bad practice and will unnecessarily complicate the use case writing and limit its implementation. As for capturing requirements for a new system from scratch, use case diagrams plus use case briefs are often used as handy and valuable tools, at least as lightweight as user stories.[citation needed] Writing use cases for large systems is tedious and a waste of time. As some put it,[who?]
[citation needed] Spending much time in writing tedious use cases which add no or little value and result in a lot of rework is a bad smell indicating that the writers are not well skilled and have little knowledge of how to write quality use cases both efficiently and effectively. Use cases should be authored in an iterative, incremental and evolutionary (agile) way. Applying use case templates does not mean that all the fields of a use case template should be used and filled out comprehensively from up-front or during a special dedicated stage, i.e. the requirement phase in the traditional waterfall development model. In fact, the use case formats formulated by those popular template styles, e.g. the RUP's and the Cockburn's (also adopted by the OUM method) etc., have been proved in practice as valuable and helpful tools for capturing, analyzing and documenting complex requirements of large systems. The quality of a good use case documentation (model) should not be judged largely or only by its size. It is possible as well that a quality and comprehensive use case model of a large system may finally evolve into hundreds of pages mainly because of the inherent complexity of the problem in hand, not because of the poor writing skills of its authors.[citation needed] Tools[edit]Text editors and/or word processors with template support are often used to write use cases. For large and complex system requirements, dedicated use case tools are helpful. Some of the well-known use case tools include:
Most UML tools support both the text writing and visual modeling of use cases. See also[edit]
References[edit]
Further reading[edit]
External links[edit]
What is the main purpose of use case modeling?The Use-case model is defined as a model which is used to show how users interact with the system in order to solve a problem. As such, the use case model defines the user's objective, the interactions between the system and the user, and the system's behavior required to meet these objectives.
What exactly does a use case diagram represent?Use-case diagrams describe the high-level functions and scope of a system. These diagrams also identify the interactions between the system and its actors. The use cases and actors in use-case diagrams describe what the system does and how the actors use it, but not how the system operates internally.
What are the 4 main components of a use case diagram?UCDs have only 4 major elements: The actors that the system you are describing interacts with, the system itself, the use cases, or services, that the system knows how to perform, and the lines that represent relationships between these elements.
Why use case Modelling is advantageous in the requirements stage of the database development process?The greatest advantage of a use case diagram is that it helps software developers and businesses design processes from a user's perspective. As a result, the system functions more efficiently and serves the user's goals.
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