Which of the following statements is true about the world at the end of the twentieth century?

Compiled by Ruth Freitag, Senior Science Specialist

Table of Contents

• Press Release
• Introduction
• Arrangement and Indexing of Entries & Location of Publications
• Song for the Year 1900
• End of the Seventeenth Century
• End of the Eighteenth Century
• End of the Nineteenth Century
• End of the Twentieth Century
• Index

Press Release: New LC Bibliography Offers Guide to Centurial Feud

When does the century end? This simple question has such a simple answer that the very existence of a dispute is puzzling. As the superintendent of the U.S. Naval Observatory remarked nearly 100 years ago, "There can be no question of 'opinion' as to the date of the commencement of the twentieth century any more than there can be a question of opinion on any other simple arithmetical fact." Yet many find the truth of the matter so unacceptable that the resulting controversy has generated a considerable literature.

A chronological guide to such writings was recently published by the Library of Congress. The Battle of the Centuries, a list of references compiled by Ruth S. Freitag, a staff member of the Science and Technology division, cites more than 200 pamphlets and articles in periodicals and newspapers, beginning at the close of the 17th century, that relate to the conflict.

these references are enlivened by many quotations from some of the more spirited disputants who wrote a century ago. Several of them foresaw that the struggle would be renewed at the approach of the year 2000, and that their "great grandchildren...will consult the files of the Times...for arguments to show that 1999 years make up 20 centuries."

However, as a more recent writer has noted, "the world has voted with its cheque book in the debate, "and indeed many elaborate plans have already been made to usher in the 21st century and the third millenium--a year early. Those who call attention to the error are ignored, if not ridiculed. As a consolation, the chairman of the Arts Council in Britian pointed out in 1990 that "you can just have a celebration both years."

The cover of the 57-page pamphlet shows Father Time pondering the dividing point between the 19th and 20th centuries.

From the Library of Congress FTP site the bibliography is available in ASCII text (battle.centuries.txt) and Word Perfect 5.1 (battle.centuries.wp).

The bibliography is also available for $2.75 from the Superintendent of Documents, PO Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250- 7954. Cite stock no. 030-001-00153-9.

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Introduction

When the encyclopedia of human folly comes to be written, a page must be reserved for the minor imbecility of the battle of the centuries--the clamorous dispute as to when a century ends. The present bibliography documents the controversy as it has arisen at the end of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, as well as a few skirmishes in the quarrel that has begun to develop with the approach of the third millennium.

The source of the confusion is easy to discern; ever since learning how to write, we have dated our documents with year designations beginning with the digits 19. Obviously, when we must begin to date them starting with 20, we have embarked on a new century! Haven't we? The answer is no, we have not; we have merely arrived at the last year of the 20th century. As historians and others involved in measuring time continue to remind us, there was no year 0. In fact, there has never been a system of recording reigns, dynasties, or eras that did not designate its first year as the year 1. To complete a century, one must complete 100 years; the first century of our era ran from the beginning of A.D. 1 to the end of A.D. 100; the second century began with the year A.D. 101.

While the period 1900-1999 is of course a century, as is any period of 100 years, it is incorrect to label it the 20th century, which began January 1, 1901, and will end on December 31, 2000. Only then will the third millennium of our era begin.

Those who are unwilling to accept the clarity of simple arithmetic in this matter and who feel strongly that there is something amiss with the result have developed some impressively convoluted arguments to promote their point of view. Baron Hobhouse, studying some of these arguments as set forth in letters published in the Times of London during the first few days of January 1900, found "that many of the reasons assigned are irrelevant, many are destructive of the conclusion in support of which they are advanced, and that such as would be relevant and logical have no basis whatever to maintain them in point of fact." He was one of several observers of the fray at the end of the 19th century who predicted that the foolishness would recur with the advent of the year 2000, as people began to look for ways of demonstrating "that 1999 years make up 20 centuries."

As a writer stated in the January 13, 1900, Scientific American, "It is a venerable error, long-lived and perhaps immortal." The shortness of human life is also a factor; as a century approaches its end, hardly anyone who experienced the previous conflict is still living, so we are doomed to undergo another round.

Astronomers have been blamed for some of the confusion by their adoption of a chronology that designates the year 1 B.C. as 0 and gives the preceding years negative numbers, e.g., 2 B.C. becomes -1, 3 B.C. becomes -2, etc. This system permits them to simplify calculations of recurring astronomical events that cross the starting point of our era, such as series of solar eclipses and the apparitions of periodic comets. However, this scheme affects only the years preceding A.D. 1 and cannot be used as a justification for ending subsequent centuries with the 99th year.

Some argue that Dionysius Exiguus made a mistake in his determination of the year of Christ's birth when he devised our present chronology in the sixth century, and that the discrepancy allows us to celebrate the end of a century a year early. However, even though the starting point of our era may not correspond to the chronologist's intention, it is still the point from which we count our centuries--each of which still requires 100 years for completion.

Nevertheless, as many of the entries in this list (from p. 45 on) will indicate, plans to celebrate the opening of the 21st century and the third millennium at midnight on December 31, 1999, have become so widespread that anyone who tries to call attention to the error is disparaged as a pedant and ignored. Perhaps the only consolation for those intending to observe the correct date is that hotels, cruise ships, supersonic aircraft, and other facilities may be less crowded at the end of the year 2000.

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Arrangement and Indexing of Entries and Location of Publications

The arrangement of entries is chronological. All personal and corporate names, pseudonyms, and initialisms have been indexed, along with a small number of topics (e.g., Dictionary definitions, Zero year).

Library of Congress call numbers are given for materials in the general collections, and symbols indicate the location of items that can be seen in the Microform Reading Room (MicRR) or the Newspaper and Current Periodical Room (N&CPR;). Shelfmarks for works held by the British Library (London) and the Bibliotheque nationale (Paris), as well as locations in a few other European libraries, are indicated in notes.

The National Union Catalog symbols listed below have been used to show the location of a few publications in other U.S. libraries.

DN--Ob: U.S. Naval Observatory Library, Washington, D.C.
NN: New York Public Library
WU: University of Wisconsin, Madison

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Song for the Year 1900

Come, New Year, a welcome guest,
Fill with hope each anxious breast,
Whom the sad old ninety-nine
(Every rosy promise breaking,)
Left in its ill-starred decline
Disillusioned, scarred and aching;
Come! a new and healing balm
Spread around of peace and calm.

Give glad Springtime once again,
With the song-birds' merry strain;
Let her bring us flowery May,
Then give place to radiant Summer,
With red roses and sweet hay
(Though, alas! the birds are dumber).
Then proud Autumn give once more,
Rich with ripe and golden store.

So your course we now forecast,
And, when you retire at last,--
All your promises proved vain,
Curst, discredited, detected,--
We those pleasures yet again,
Which in you we once expected,
Credulous will hope to see
In another century. A. J. C.
Punch, Jan. 3, 1900

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End of the Seventeenth Century

1 Le Lorrain de Vallemont, abbe Pierre. Extrait d'une letre de Monsieur de Vallemont Docteur en Theologie, a Monsieur Delpech Conseiller au Parlement de Paris; sur la question: Si l'an 1700. finit le XVII. Siecle, qui court; ou s'il commence le Siecle suivant. Journal des scavans, t. 25, 4 mars 1697: 155-161. AP25.J7, v. 25 Favors the view that the year 1700 will begin the new century, citing a number of ecclesiastical authorities in support, but points out that, among others, the members of the Academie Francaise are of the opposite opinion, having included in the definition of the word siecle in their dictionary the statement "Le Siecle qui court, a comence au premier jour de l'an 1601." 2 Weigel, Erhard. Entwurff der Conciliation dess alten und neuen Calender- Styli, welchergestalt solche im Nov. Anno 1699. anzustellen ist, und hierauf im folgenden Monat, und neuem Seculo, der neue conciliirte Stylus in bestandiger Harmonie, fortwahren kan. Nebst einer kurtzen hierzu diensamen Instruction. Regenspurg, Gedruckt bey J. G. Hofmann [1698] 8 p. ------ Fruhlings-Quartal des 1699sten Jahrs, zur Vorbereitung, auf das neue Seculum MDCC, handelt von den Wurckungs-Arten menschlichen Gemuthes, womit mehrere Kunst- und Tugend-Wurckungs-Vorthl zu erforschen und zu finden. Jena, Zu finden bey J. Bielcken [1699] 24 p. ------ Quartalische Vorbereitung, am Ende des mit dem 1699sten Jahr ablauffenden Siebenzenden Seculi nach Christi Geburth, zum neuen, mit dem 1700. Jahr instehenden, Gott geb Gluck- und Segensvollen, Achtzehenden Seculo. Jn demselbigen wo moglich, mehrere Kunst- und Tugend-Wurckungs-Vorthl, durch freundliche Communication auch mit den Teutschen Maas- und Weiss Liebhabern, zu erforschen. Jena, Zu finden bey J. Bielcken [1699] 20 p. Although these three publications do not appear to include discussion of the dividing point between centuries, the titles indicate the author's belief that the 99th, rather than the 100th, year marks the century's end. The pamphlets are held by the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich; for shelfmarks, see its Alphabetischer Katalog, 1501-1840, v. 58 (Munchen, New York, K. G. Saur, 1990). 3 Becker, Peter. Exercitatio historico-chronologica qua investigaturis seculi praesentis decimi septimi finem, rationibus firmis demonstratur: Annum, quem stylo usitatissimo inscribimus millesimum septingentesimum ... re vera esse seculi XVII. finem. Rostochii, Richelius, 1699. 12 leaves. 4 Critique sur la dissertation du siecle prochain et sur la critique de M. ***, bachelier en theologie. Paris, J. Musier, 1699. Held by the Bibliotheque nationale in Paris under shelfmark V. 29420. 5 Delaisement, M. Dissertation sur le commencement du siecle prochain, et la solution du probleme, scavoir laquelle des deux annees 1700 ou 1701 est la premiere du siecle. A Paris, J. Moreau, M. DC. XCIX. 19 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 717. c. 36. (1.). "... 1700 est la derniere annee du Siecle present, & 1701 la premiere du Siecle suivant." ------ A dissertation upon the beginning of the next century: and the solution of the problem; to know which of the two years 1700 or 1701 is the first of the next century? With some considerations about the observation of the year of Jubilee. Translated out of French. London, J. Nutt, MDCXCIX. 30 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 8560. c. 42. Includes, on p. 15-30, "A Critical letter, from M---- Batchelor in Divinity, to the author of the Dissertation upon the beginning of the next century. With an answer to the said letter." 6 La Fin du siecle. Par un anticritique malgre luy, pour repondre a plusieurs dissertations contraires qui ont paru depuis cinq ou six mois. A Limoges, 1699. 104 p. Held by the Bibliotheque nationale in Paris under shelfmark G. 11502. 7 Juni, Ulrich. Anmerkungen uber das unpartheyische Bedenken von Prof. Weigelii proponirter Calender-Conciliation, nebst eine Beantwortung derselben. [Leipzig?] 1699. According to Houzeau and Lancaster's Bibliographie generale de l'astronomie, this deals with the question of which year would be the first of the 18th century. 8 Juni, Ulrich. Untersuchung der Streitfrage ob 1700 oder 1701 fur das erste Jahr des kunftigen Seculi zu halten seye. [Leipzig?] 1699. 9 Lettre a un gentil-homme de province sur la question du tems: quelle est la derniere annee de ce siecle, ou 1699 ou 1700? Paris, M. Brunet [1699] Held by the Bibliotheque nationale in Paris under shelfmark V. 29422. 10 Lettre critique de M.***, bachelier en theologie, a l'auteur de la Dissertation, sur le commencement du siecle prochain. Avec la reponse a la mesme lettre. A Paris, J. Moreau, M. DC. XCIX. 28 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 717. c. 36. (5.). The Reponse is by M. Delaisement. See note to entry 5 for English translation. 11 Mallemans de Messanges, Claude. La question decidee sur le sujet de la fin du siecle, si l'annee 1700 est la derniere du dix-septieme siecle ou la premiere du dix-huit. Paris, J. Moreau, 1699. 55 p. Held by the Bibliotheque nationale in Paris under shelfmarks V. 29424 and Res. G. 2112. Reviewed in Journal des savans, t. 27, 15. juin 1699, p. 430-432 (AP25.J7, v. 27). 12 Nouvelle dissertation sur le siecle prochain, ou l'on fait voir que l'annee 1700 est la premiere du siecle. Par M.... D. Avocat en Parlement. A Paris, J. Moreau, 1699. 21 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 717. c. 36. (2.). 13 La Querelle des auteurs sur le commencement du siecle prochain. A Paris, J. Moreau, M. DC. XCIX. 33 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 717. c. 36. (3.). Presented in the form of five conversations. "De tout ce qui est dit cy-dessus, on peut conclure que ceux qui soutiennent que l'annee 1701 est la premiere du siecle prochain, ont pris le party de la verite." 14 Replique a La querelle des auteurs sur le commencement du siecle prochain. [A Paris, J. Moreau, 1699] 26 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 717. c. 36. (4.). Argues the case for 1700 as the first year of the 18th century. 15 Reponse a la dissertation sur le commencement du siecle prochain, si c'est l'an 1700 ou 1701 qui sera le premier du siecle. Paris, J. B. Coignard, 1699. Held by the Bibliotheque nationale in Paris under shelfmark Vz. 2216. 16 Abicht, Johann G. Annus MDCC ex hypothesi vulgari seculi XVII ultimus et ex hypothesi scaligeri seculi XVIII secundus disputationi priori pro loco in ... facultate philosophica obtinendo demonstratus, eruditorum examini proponitur a M. Joh. Georg. Abicht. Lipsiae, Typis J. C. Brandenburgeri [1700] 16 p. Held by the Biblioteca nazionale centrale in Rome. 17 [Bagelaar, Jan] Aanmerking op de gedagten van F. Halma, over het begin der 18e eeuw. Amsterdam, P. Sceperus, 1700. 8 p. Held by the Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague, in its pamphlet collection. 18 Halma, Francois. Brief aan den H. M. van Nispen ... waar in het verschil over 't einde der 17 en 't begin der 18de eeuw nader ter toetse komt. Amsterdam, 1700. 92 p. 19 Jens, Petrus. Ondersoek der bewysen van F. Halma, wegens het geschil der nieuwe eeuw. Nevens een korte betooning na de manier der wiskonst voorgesteld. Waer mede uyt de gewoonte van all volkeren, koningen, tydschryvers, etc. bewese werd, dat dit loopende jaer het laetste jaer der seventiende eeuw is. In 'sGravenhage, By M. Uytwerf, 1700. 16 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark T. 1715. (11.). 20 Lettera scritta a Carlo Cesare Scaletti patrizio faentino intorno alle controversie, o equivoci, che si sono presi da qualcheduno, che l'anno M. DCC non sia l'ultimo, ma il primo dal secolo. In Bologna, Per gli eredi Pisarri, 1700. 12 p. Signed F. F. O. D. O. I. 21 Ludolf, Hiob, the younger. Widerlegung der von einem Anonymo so intitulirten und in Utopia gedruckten, grundlichen und genauen Untersuchung vom Anfange des herannahenden Jahrhunderts. Jena, 1700. 22 Nispen, C. van. Over het begin der XVIIIe eeuwe. Dordrecht, 1700. 23 Rabus, Petrus. Over het begin der eeuwe. Rotterdam, 1700. 24 Rondelli, Geminiano. Urania custode del tempo. Varie considerazioni ... intorno al computo, e denominazione degli anni, con le quali resta determinato, l'anno corrente essere l'ultimo del secolo decimo-settimo dell'epoca Cristiana, e non il primo del secolo decimo-ottavo. In Bologna, Per gli eredi Pisarri, MDCC. 45 p. Held by the Bibliotheque nationale in Paris under shelfmark 4o V. Piece. 928. 25 Cordatus, Sincerus. Neu-Jahrs-Gedanken, zugleich auff den Anfang dieses neuangehenden Seculi gerichtet. Leipzig, 1701. 26 Moller, Daniel W. Disputatio de saeculo. Altdorfii, 1701. On the controversy over the first year of the 18th century. 27 Risposta ad una dama in vantaggio di chi tiene l'anno M.DCC. per lo primo, e non per l'ultimo del secolo. In Bologna, Per il Pisarri, M DCCI. 55 p. Top of Page

End of the Eighteenth Century

28 Dissertations on the commencement of the next century. Gentleman's magazine, v. 68, May 1798: 401. AP4.G3, v. 68 Two letters on the controversy. The first, dated Mar. 13 and signed "A Constant Reader," submits two simple methods of showing "that the XIXth century commences the 1st of Jan. 1801." The second, dated Wooler, Mar. 21, and signed N. G.," argues for the opposing view. 29 Conclusion of the century. Gentleman's magazine, v. 68, June 1798: 468-469. AP4.G3, v. 68 A letter dated June 4 and signed "B. S." repudiates the arguments of N. G. in the previous issue. 30 End of century? Gentleman's magazine, v. 68, June 1798: 493-494. AP4.G3, v. 68 A letter dated June 12 and signed "C. N." supports N. G. and points out that "the Astronomer Royal and Dr. Herschel, the two greatest living authorities, are of opinion that the next century will commence with the year 1800 ..." 31 The Commencement of the nineteenth century elucidated. Gentleman's magazine, v. 68, July 1798: 573-578. AP4.G3, v. 68 Three letters arguing at varying lengths in favor of 1800 as the first year of the new century. The first, dated Gray's-inn-square, July 10th, is signed "C. Sh."; the second, dated July 9, is signed "C. N."; and the third, dated July 16, is signed "G. W." 32 Conclusion of the century. Gentleman's magazine, v. 68, Aug. 1798: 676-682. AP4.G3, v. 68 Seven letters, all supporting 1801 as the first year of the 19th century. The first letter, dated Aug. 8, is signed "R. E. R."; the second, Aug. 7, is signed "Omicron"; the third, dated L. Horsley, Aug. 13, is signed "R. O."; the fourth, Aug. 13, is signed "Pythagoras"; the fifth, Aug. 19, is signed "D. C."; the sixth, Aug. 20, is signed "R. C."; and the last, Aug. 21, is signed "R. W." A note from the editor on p. 682 expresses a vain hope that the controversy "is now completely and clearly settled." In the September issue, however, on p. 791, there is a paragraph indicating that both factions have continued their epistolary outpourings. The editor briefly describes but declines to print contributions received from C. N., C. Sh., B. S., N. J., M. S. F. A., and A. R. 33 Burja, Abel. Werther und Werner. Ein Gesprach uber die Frage: ob das neue Jahrhundert mit dem Jahre 1800 oder mit 1801 anfangt? Berlin, Bei C. F. Schone, 1799. 48 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 8562. aaa. 34. Werner explains to Werther why the new century begins with the year 1801. 34 Cantzlaar, Jan. Voorstelling dat het jaar 1800, (en niet het jaar 1801) het begin der negentiende eeuw is of moet zijn. Met de voornaamste bewijzen, die daar voor kunnen worden bygebragt. Rotterdam, N. Cornel, 1799. 20 p. 35 Monnich, Bernhard F. Auch eine Antwort auf die Frage: ist das Jahr 1800 das letzte im 18ten oder das erste im 19ten Jahrhundert. Berlin, Reimer, 1799. 36 Ueber die Frage: ist das laufende Seculum mit dem 31ten December 1799., oder 1800. vollendet? Neues Hannoverisches Magazin, 9. Jahrg., 15. Apr. 1799: columns 481-496. AP30.H24, v. 9 Signed N. Refers to the publication in an unspecified 1798 issue of the Gentleman's Magazine of the view that the century will end on Dec. 31, 1799, and explains at considerable length why this cannot be so. He dismisses the notion of a zero year as an English whim and cites the Aug. 1798 issue of the magazine (entry 32) as a source of additional adverse criticism of the idea. 37 Wann fangt das XIX. Jahrhundert an? Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, 1. Jahrg., 18. Sept. 1799: columns 857-862. music. ML5.A43, v. 1 An effort--admittedly unsuccessful--to demonstrate the correct starting date of the 19th century by means of a musical canon or round song. Comments on this essay by Otto Schmid-Dresden, accompanied by the music, appear as "Wann fangt das neue Jahrhundert an?" in Blatter fur Haus- und Kirchenmusik, 4. Jahrg., Feb. 1900, p. 27-28 (ML5.B6, v. 4). 38 The Eighteenth century. Gentleman's magazine, v. 69, 1799, suppl.: 1176. AP4.G3, v. 69 Three letters on the controversy, all dated Dec. 31. The first, from Camberwell and signed "D.," wonders why, if 1800 years have passed, the date 1800 is to be used for the coming 12 months. The second, from "A School boy," concludes that "1800 must be the last number of an eighteenth series, and also of the eighteenth century." The last, signed "De Willowby," presents a short humorous poem involving confusion between the words "century" and "sentry." 39 Etwas uber die Frage: wenn endiget sich unser jetziges Saculum? Neues Hannoverisches Magazin, 9. Jahrg., 16. Dec. 1799: columns 1605-1611. AP30.H24, v. 9 Rare Bk. Coll. Signed P. H. Argues that the century will have completed its course on Jan. 1, 1800. 40 The Next century. Times (London), Dec. 26, 1799: 4.N&CPR "We have uniformly rejected all letters, and declined all discussion upon the question of when the present century ends? as it is one of the most absurd that can engage the public attention, and we are astonished to find it has been the subject of so much dispute, since it appears to be perfectly plain. The present century will not terminate till January 1, 1801, unless it can be made out that 99 are 100. Eighteen centuries are 1800 years, then how can 18 centuries be completed till the year 1800 has expired? What is the meaning of a century, but a clear distinct series of 100 years? How can 100 be completed by 99? ... We shall not pursue this question further, nor should we now have said so much upon it, had not several applications been made for our opinion. It is a silly, childish discussion, and only exposes the want of brains of those who maintain a contrary opinion to that we have stated ..." 41 Ophelderende aanmerkingen over het einde der 18de eeuw. Nieuwe algemene konst- en letter-bode, 12. deel, 27 dec. 1799: 202-205. AP15.A5, 1799 Includes discussion of Cantzlaar's 1799 pamphlet (entry 34). See also the short note, "Historische en Letterkundige Anecdotes," in 13. deel, 17 jan. 1800, p. 22, about a German satirical medal relating to the dispute over the end of the 17th century, and "Pieter Leefgraag en Heintje-Maat," in the issue of 28 feb. 1800, p. 68-71, a story (translated from the German by J. G. Busch) that turns on the wish of an ailing man to survive until the beginning of the 19th century. 42 Cantzlaar, Jan. De tyd- en eeuw-onderzoeker, voor het jaar 1800. Bevattende de ontwikkeling der gronden en bewyzen van de sterrekundigen, omtrent de stelling dat het jaar 1800. na de geboorte J. C. het eerste jaar der negentiende eeuw is. no. 1-12. Te Rotterdam, N. Cornel, 1800. 98 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 1609/3323. 43 Darragon, Francois L. L'anti-Lalende [sic]; ou, Refutation de la lettre du celebre astronome Lalende. [Paris, De l'Impr. de Gauthier, 1800] 11 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark R. 404. (4.). The text of Lalande's letter as published in Le Bien-informe, 23 nivose, an 8 (Jan. 13, 1800), clearly stating that the year 1800 belongs to the 18th century, is included. The refutation consists more of abuse than argument. 44 Gelder, Jacob de. Geschied- en wiskundige verhandeling over het verschil wegens het slot-jaar der XVIII. eeuw. 's Hage, J. J. Stuerman, 1800. 120 p. 45 Hindenburg, Karl F. Beantwortung der Frage, ob das neunzehnde Jahrhundert mit dem ersten Januar 1800, oder mit dem ersten Januar 1801 anfange. Leipzig, 1800. 46 Korte wysgeerige verhandeling over de gemeene christelijke jaartelling, waarin bewezen wordt, dat de negentiende eeuw dezer jaartelling eerst begint met de 1 January 1801. Rotterdam, 1800. By P. P. R. P. 47 Mackay, Andrew. The commencement of the nineteenth century, determined upon unerring principles. Aberdeen, 1800. 62 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmarks 531. 1. 17. (3.) and T. 934. (5.). "That the end of the year commonly denominated 1799, is the termination of the eighteenth century; and, therefore, the beginning of the year marked 1800, the commencement of the nineteenth century; the author of this tract cannot entertain, even, a doubt. And that the celebrated Drs. Maskelyne and Herschel, and the very learned M. de la Lande, as well as every other practical astronomer, are of the same opinion, is only what he could have expected: and he flatters himself the following arguments will be convincing to at least some, if not to all, of those who are still on the opposite side of the question." 48 Das merkwurdige Jahr 1800; oder, Erlauterung uber den Streit des Anfangs vom 19ten Jahrhundert. Lobenstein, Ilgen, 1800. 49 Pye, Henry J. Carmen seculare for the year 1800. London, Printed for J. Wright, Piccadilly, by W. Bulmer, Russel-Court, Cleveland-Row, St. James's, 1800. 43 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 1346. i. 11. In an introduction, the Poet Laureate gives his reasons for concluding that the new century begins Jan. 1, 1800. These remarks are quoted at length in a review published in the Gentleman's Magazine, v. 70, Jan. 1800, p. 64-66 (AP4.G3, v. 70). The reviewer comments, "The worthy Laureat has certainly got into a scrape; and we wish him well out of it: but we have stated his arguments fairly; though not convinced by an iota of the statement that 99 can make 100." See also the letter from A. D. in the Feb. 1800 issue of the Gentleman's Magazine, p. 134, showing that the poet's view is in error. 50 End of the century; termination of the century clearly ascertained. Gentleman's magazine, v. 70, Feb. 1800: 132-134.AP4.G3, v. 70 Signed R. C. See also the brief item in the Apr. 1800 issue, p. 381, referring to disputes in France about the end of the 18th century and quoting Lalande as stating that "the year 1800 incontestibly belongs to the 18th, or old century." 51 Lofft, Capel. On the question of the century. Monthly mirror, v. 9, Feb. 1800: 83-88. AP4.M83, v. 9 Calls attention to a statement in the preface to v. 9, included with the Jan. 1800 issue--"we, therefore, commence a new year, a new volume, and, if the chronologists will give us leave, a new century"-- and explains why he thinks the new century will not begin until Jan. 1, 1801. 52 Observations on Mr. Pye's preface to his ode for the new century. Monthly mirror, v. 9, Mar. 1800: 148-150. AP4.M83, v. 9 Contests the arguments used by the poet to support his view that the 19th century began Jan. 1, 1800. 53 A New chapter of chronicles. Monthly mirror, v. 9, Apr. 1800: 201-203.AP4.M83, v. 9 A satire on the battle of the centuries, presented as a dispute between two brothers named Cutshort and Fivescore. 54 Lardner, Dionysius. [When a century ends] In his The museum of science & art. v. 7. London, Walton and Maberly, 1855. p. 6-7. Q171.L297, v. 7 "... it is notorious that after the year 1800, questions were constantly raised in society as to whether such or such a day or month belonged to the eighteenth century or to the nineteenth." Shows that the year 100 belonged to the first century, and, similarly, 1800 to the 18th, and 1900 to the 19th, century. 55 When a century ends. Historical magazine, v. 2, Jan. 1858: 12-13. E171.H64, v. 2 Quotes a letter written Jan. 23, 1799, by President Timothy Dwight of Yale, responding to a query about the end of the 18th century. In his view, this would not occur until the termination of the year 1800. 56 Quand a fini le XVIIIe siecle? Quand a commence le XIXe? L'Intermediaire des chercheurs et curieux, 6. annee, 25 janv., 25 fev. 1870: columns 38-39, 111-114. AG309.I6, v. 6 The question is raised by A. Resol, who quotes contradictory views. Responses are supplied by six correspondents, all of whom are agreed that the 19th century began with the year 1801. 57 Walford, E. The last and present centuries. Notes and queries, 5th ser., v. 11, June 21, 1879: 486. AG305.N7, s. 5, v. 11 Calls attention to an obituary in the Times in which the year 1800 is erroneously referred to as "the first year of the present century." Top of Page

End of the Nineteenth Century

58 Quand le siecle finit-il? L'Intermediaire des chercheurs et curieux, 15. annee, 25 dec. 1882: column 737; 16. annee, 10-25 janv., 10 mars 1883: columns 25-26, 58-59, 147-148; 17. annee, 10 fev. 1884: column 75; 24. annee, 25 janv., 25 mars-10 avril, 10 juil. 1891: columns 35-36, 190-191, 204-205, 499-500. AG309.I6, v. 15-17, 24 The question, raised by J. Camus in 1882 and by E. M. in 1891, produced a total of 15 responses, all clearly indicating that 1900 is the last year of the 19th century. 59 When does the century begin? Notes and queries, 7th ser., v. 10, Sept. 20, 1890: 225. AG305.N7, s. 7, v. 10 "G. F. R. B." cites Thomas Holcroft's Memoirs (London, Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, 1816) which records a discussion on this subject that took place at a dinner on July 9, 1798. 60 Walford, E. The last decade of this century. Notes and queries, 7th ser., v. 11, Jan. 24, 1891: 64. MicRR (o) 85/144 "... the twentieth century will begin not, as supposed, in January, 1900, but in January, 1901." 61 Premiere annee d'un siecle. L'Intermediaire des chercheurs et curieux, v. 33, 20 mars, 10 juin 1896: columns 331, 669-671; v. 34, 20 aout: columns 220-221; v. 35, 10 janv., 20 avril, 20 mai 1897: columns 15-16, 491-492, 632; v. 36, 20 juil., 30 sept.: columns 57-58, 396. AG309.I6, v. 33-36 The question as originally raised by Verepius concerned the truth of an assertion to the effect that the first year of a century can never begin on a Wednesday, a Friday, or a Sunday. This turns out to be correct for the Gregorian calendar (though not for the Julian), but the responses soon reverted to the old dispute concerning the dividing point between centuries. Includes mention of some well-known figures (e.g., Goethe and Victor Hugo) who were among those confused by the problem. 62 Is the end of the present century to be expected on January 1st, 1900, or January 1st, 1901? Science siftings, v. 10, Sept. 19, 1896: 355. Q1.S8, v. 10 "... the twentieth century will begin on the morning of January 1st., 1901." In answer to another inquiry, this response was substantially repeated in v. 14, Aug. 27, 1898, p. 278. 63 Foerster, Wilhelm J. Das neue Jahrhundert und der Kalender. Mit einem Schlusswort uber das Osterfest. Westermanns illustrierte deutsche Monatshefte, 85. Bd., Okt. 1898: 135-144. AP30.W5, v. 85 Includes some discussion of the controversy over the new century's beginning date, which the author states to be Jan. 1, 1901. 64 Pietzker, Friedrich. Das Jahr "Null." Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift, 13. Bd., 2. Okt. 1898: 472-474. Q3.N9, v. 13 After stating that the year 1900 clearly belongs (and gives its name to) the 19th century, the writer considers proposals to insert a year 0 in the accepted chronology, as astronomers have done for some time. He concludes that such a step is not justifiable. 65 Equilibrium, pseud. When will the XIXth century end; and the XXth begin? Reprinted for the author from letters published in the Daily and Tri- weekly gleaner. Kingston, Jamaica, "Gleaner" Co., 1899. 18 p. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 8563. bb. 32. (4.). Supports Jan. 1, 1900, as the beginning date of the 20th century. 66 Foerster, Wilhelm J. Kalendar und Uhren am Ende des Jahrhunderts. Braunschweig, G. Westermann, 1899. 79 p. WU 67 Il 1900 [Millenovecento] se sia l'ultimo anno del secolo XIX o il primo del secolo XX. Ristampa di un opuscolo pubblicato per analoga questione nel 1800. Roma, Tip. Vaticana, 1899. 37 p. 68 Rajna, Michele. Quando finisce il secolo decimonono? In Almanacco italiano. anno 5; 1900. Firenze, R. Bemporad, 1899. p. 54-58. AY894.I8, 1900 First published in a supplement to La Perseveranza (Milan), Feb. 12, 1899. In a detailed discussion of the controversy, shows that 1900 is the last year of the 19th century. 69 Scocchera, A. Al 1o gennaio 1900 comincera il ventesimo secolo dell'era volgare; memoria dimostrativa. Napoli, A. Trani, 1899. 7 p. 70 O Ultimo anno do seculo. In Almanach Bertrand. 1. anno; 1900. Lisboa, Antiga Casa Bertrand [1899] p. 1-3. AY1014.A25, 1900 Refers to the controversy over the dividing point between the centuries, shows why 1900 is the last year of the 19th century, and suggests that the dispute will be renewed as the year 2000 approaches. 71 The Twentieth century. Times (London), Jan. 3, 1899: 8.N&CPR Notes that "Mr. John Hutchinson, writing from the Middle Tem- ple Library," calls attention to the preface to the prayer book, in which the 19th century is described as extending "from the year 1800 till the year 1899 inclusive," on the authority of an Act of Parliament (24 Geo. II., c. 23). The editor remarks, "whatever legal authority the Act may possess, it cannot alter the fact that 1900 is the last year of the 19th century, and that the 20th century will begin in 1901." 72 Topics of the times. New York times, v. 48, Jan. 11, 1899: 6. N&CPR Editorial marveling at the existence of a controversy as to the dividing point between centuries: "the nineteenth century of the Christian era will be completed when 1,900 years have elapsed since the first year of the Christian era began--that is, at the instant when Dec. 31, 1900, turns from 'today' into 'yesterday,' while the twentieth century starts on its course just as soon as one can with accuracy say 'This is Jan. 1, 1901.'" 73 The Twentieth century. (Being a page from the log-book of Zedwhyeks.) Punch, v. 116, Jan. 18, 1899: 33. AP101.P8, v. 116 Facetious. The writer discusses the question with the Professor of Calculation and Chronology at Colney Hatch (site of a large mental hospital). 74 Wenn ist das neunzehnte Jahrhundert zu Ende? Militar-Wochenblatt, 84. Jahrg., 27. Jan. 1899: column 248. MicRR 39491 Argues that the new century begins Jan. 1, 1900. 75 The Beginning of the twentieth century. Observatory, v. 22, Feb. 1899: 104-105. QB1.O2, v. 22 Cites some earlier writings on the question. 76 [Kewitsch, Georg] Das neue Jahrhundert. Militar-Wochenblatt, 84. Jahrg., 8. Feb. 1899: columns 336-337. MicRR 39491 Disagrees with the journal's view on the question and the reasoning behind it, as expressed in its Jan. 27 issue, and presents the case in favor of Jan. 1, 1901, as the starting date for the 20th century. This is followed by an editorial comment maintaining the pro-1900 view. In the Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, 30. Jahrg., 7. Heft, 1899, p. 487-490 (Q3.Z38, v. 30), Kewitsch's article, somewhat revised and supplemented with additional comments and explanations (but without the Militar-Wochenblatt's editorial remarks), is reprinted under the same title. 77 Il Principio del nuovo secolo. La Civilta cattolica, ser. 17, v. 5, 18 febbr. 1899: 471-484. MicRR 01679 Bibliographic footnotes. Presents both sides of the question in the form of a dialogue between Tizio (pro-1900) and Sempronio (pro-1901). 78 Ewing, Neal H. When shall we greet the new era? New York times, v. 48, July 22, 1899: 6. N&CPR Letter to the editor arguing that the 20th century should begin Jan. 1, 1900, because the change in the first two digits of the year is so impressive. "The centurial figures are the symbol, and the only symbol, of the centuries." He believes we should not be troubled by the resulting reduction to 99 years of the first century. 79 Ebeling, Herman L. The end of the century. New York times, v. 48, July 25, 1899: 6. N&CPR Letter to the editor supporting 1901 as the first year of the 20th century. 80 Alden, Edward. As it might be. New York times, v. 48, July 31, 1899: 6. N&CPR Letter to the editor expressing a belief that referring to the years by ordinal rather than cardinal numeration would make it clear that the new century begins in 1900. 81 West, George E. Something wrong with the system. New York times, v. 48, July 31, 1899: 6. N&CPR Letter to the editor supporting, with very confused arguments, 1900 as the first year of the 20th century. 82 Topics of the times. New York times, v. 48, Aug. 2, 1899: 6. N&CPR "Defense of the view that the new century begins with 1900 seems to have simmered down to the statement that our present system of designating the years is not like another system used by certain persons for certain other purposes, and that if that other system had been extended, as it should have been, to the naming of the years, the new century would begin twelve months earlier than it really will. All this is undoubtedly true, but what, pray, has it to do with the case as it is? Facts are one thing; might-have-been's and should-be's are another, and failure to distinguish between the two leads to much waste of time and temper." 83 McDonald, George E. Twentieth century. Notes and queries and historic magazine, v. 17, Sept./Oct. 1899: 208. AG305.H5, v. 17 Provides a table to show how, "if the centuries were volumes, the year 1900 would be included in the XIXth century." Truth Seeker is cited as the source, but this could not be verified. 84 Waite, C. B. When will the nineteenth century close? Truth seeker, v. 26, Sept. 23, 1899: 602. MicRR 02852 Supports his contention that the century will not end until Dec. 31, 1900, by quoting from the definition of "century" in "Webster's Unabridged." 85 Yanney, Benjamin F. Some calendarial facts about the twentieth century. Scientific American, v. 81, Sept. 23, 1899: 195. T1.S5, v. 23 "When will the twentieth century begin? Why there should be different answers to this question is a little puzzling to know ... it begins with the first second of the first hour of the first day of January, 1901." See the letter from E. H. Van Patten, headed "The Twentieth Century Problem," in the issue of Oct. 21, p. 262. Van Patten's arguments in favor of Jan. 1, 1900, as the beginning date of the new century are followed by the editor's explanation of why this cannot be so. A version of Yanney's article appears under the title "Calendarial Facts of Twentieth Century" in Popular Science, v. 33, Dec. 1899, p. 279 (Q1.P8, v. 33). 86 Schurig, Richard. Das wahre Geburtsjahr Christi und der Anfang des Jahrhunderts. Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, 30. Jahrg., 8. Heft, 1899: 576-578.Q3.Z38, v. 30 Reprinted from the Leipziger Tageblatt of Dec. 29, 1894. Dealing on p. 578 with the question of the turn of the century, Schurig, pointing out that there was no year 0, states that the 20th century begins on Jan. 1, 1901. 87 Flammarion, Camille. En quelle annee commencera le vingtieme siecle? In Societe astronomique de France. Bulletin, 13. annee, dec. 1899: 527-535. illus. QB1.S6, v. 13 Finds that a dispute has arisen at the end of every century since at least 1599, but shows that the solution is very simple; since the era began with a year 1, not a year 0, the 20th century begins Jan. 1, 1901. Much of the article also appears in Flammarion's Annuaire astronomique et meteorologique pour 1900, p. 174-177 (Paris, Librairie E. Flammarion [1899] QB9.A6, 1900). The question was also raised or commented upon at meetings of the Societe astronomique de France, according to brief reports in the Bulletin, 14 annee, janv. 1900, p. 18; fev., p. 63; mars, p. 112; and mai, p. 197 (QB1.S6, v. 14). 88 Topics of the times. New York times, v. 49, Dec. 8, 1899: 6. N&CPR Editorial commenting on the Kaiser's order that "everything governmental, from regimental flags to postal cards, will on Jan. 1 next be decorated in honor of the new century." The writer finds himself in an embarrassing situation--either he must admit that a century is a period of 99 years, or else hold to the opinion that it lasts 100 years, thus hinting "that we think the Kaiser has made a very stupid mistake about a very simple matter ... The mighty Kaiser has issued his commands, and it would be distinctly impious to trust any longer to unassisted common sense." 89 Hirsch, Gideon M. Beginnt das neunzehnte Jahrhundert mit dem kommenden Neujahrstag? Das Magazin fur Litteratur, 68. Jahrg., 9.-16. Dez. 1899: columns 1153-1160, 1177-1183. MicRR 38978 Believes the problem can be solved by changing the system of naming centuries, e.g., calling the years 1900-1999 the 19th century, the years 1800-1899, the 18th century, etc. There are two postscripts (columns 1183-1185), the first from Rudolf Steiner suggesting a slight modification--the years 1900-1999 to be called century 19, the years 1800-1899, century 18, etc.--which would allow the terms 19th century and 20th century to retain their precise meaning (i.e., 1801-1900 and 1901-2000); the second is Hirsch's comment on Steiner's proposal. 90 When does the century close? Sunday school times, v. 41, Dec. 9, 1899: 798. BV1500.S8, v. 41 "One of the endless and useless questions which has been in discussion for long years is, 'When does the century close?' ... While different opinions are held as to what should have been the decision, it is now practically accepted as a settled fact that the twentieth century is to be reckoned as beginning January 1, 1900." 91 Topics of the times. New York times, v. 49, Dec. 15, 1899: 6. N&CPR "Laboring apparently under the delusion that there is controversy as to when the twentieth century begins, The Boston Herald devotes the better part of a page to the publication of letters from college Presidents to whom it had submitted inquiries on the subject." Of the 14 responding, 11 were clearly in favor of 1901; one was "too enigmatic for the comprehension of ordinary mortals"; and two expressed themselves in favor of 1900. 92 The New century in Germany: according to the Kaiser's calendar it begins Jan. 1, 1900. New York times, v. 49, Dec. 16, 1899: 1. N&CPR News item about the German emperor's orders to celebrate Jan. 1, 1900, as the opening of the 20th century. 93 End of the century. Washington post, Dec. 19, 1899: 6.N&CPR Editorial. "A century can end only with the completion of a hundred years, and nineteen centuries can end only with the completion of nineteen hundred years. The nineteenth century, therefore, ends with the last day of the year 1900, and the twentieth century cannot begin before that time. Of course, it is permissible to any one to claim that some century had only ninety-nine years to its credit, and to argue from that amusing hypothesis that the next century begins with the 1st day of January, 1900. But no one is compelled by law to accept this proposition, and there is no binding reason, so far as we can see, why this or that person need argue the case at all. This is a free country, and almost any citizen can assert, if he wants to, that 99 makes 100. What are we coming to, when our best people can be muzzled by the dry and stupid laws of mathematics?" 94 Schram, Robert. Die Einrichtung unseres Kalenders und der Beginn des Jahrhunderts. In Wissenschaftlicher Klub, Vienna. Monatsblatter, 21. Jahrg., 20. Dec. 1899: 27-29. AS142.V41, v. 21 Presented at the Nov. 13 meeting of the society. Goes back to the origins of our calendar to show why the 20th century begins with the year 1901. 95 Topics of the times. New York times, v. 49, Dec. 20, 1899: 6. N&CPR Editorial comments on the papal decree which was said to refer to the year 1900 as ushering in the new century. "The Latin text of the document has now been made public, and in it there is no faintest trace of support for so silly a theory ... The German Emperor, apparently, must stand in solitary grandeur as the only man of any prominence who cannot count up to one hundred." 96 When the century ends. Outlook, v. 63, Dec. 23, 1899: 951. AP2.O8, v. 63 Comments on the decision of the German emperor to begin the 20th century a year early and similar errors made by American college and university presidents. 97 Midnight, December 31, 1900. Washington post, Dec. 28, 1899: 6. N&CPR Editorial. Restates the paper's position regarding the date of the century's end and prints a letter from Donald Gillis of Asheville, N.C., expressing disagreement. The editor goes on to say: "Meanwhile, The Post is open to conviction. We are not bigoted or intolerant. If anyone will show us how a century can be completed with less than 100 years, and how nineteen centuries can be completed with less than 1900 years, and how the twentieth century can begin before the nineteenth century ends, we shall joyfully put ashes in our hair and hail him as a wizard." 98 Boyle, Sir Courtenay. The twentieth century. Times (London), Dec. 29, 1899: 10. N&CPR Letter to the editor giving reasons why he believes the start of the new century should be observed on Jan. 1, 1900. An editorial taking an unqualified stance in opposition to such a step appears on p. 7 of the same issue. 99 ... The Twentieth century. English mechanic and world of science, v. 70, Dec. 29, 1899: 449. MicRR 85176 "A Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society" comments on the announcement from Berlin that "the Federal Council decided ... that the new century shall be reckoned from January 1, 1900." 100 Is the twentieth century here, or is it not? Literary digest, v. 19, Dec. 30, 1899: 798-799. AP2.L58, v. 19 "One disquieting thought arises among all the 'letters to the editor' declaring that the new century begins in 1900, and the patient daily replies of the press with diagrams, supposed cyclometers, piles of pennies, rows of apples, bricks, and matches, endless vistas of mile-posts, regiments of marching soldiers, and imaginary sheep, elephants, and grasshoppers jumping over imaginary fences. The disquieting thought is that in a hundred years it will all be forgotten, and some 'letter to the editor' will start the whole whirl of pennies, apples, etc., going again." 101 [The New century] Spectator, v. 83, Dec. 30, 1899: 974. AP4.S7, v. 83 Paragraph commenting on the German emperor's decision to inaugurate the 20th century on Jan. 1, 1900, and noting that "a majority of the population of Europe will probably agree with him. The change in the designating numeral blinds them to the fact that if the century begins, as it must do, with the year 1, it cannot end till the hundredth year has expired." This item evoked letters from John Tennant, Arthur S. Owen, and Oliver Lodge, published under the heading "The New Century" in v. 84, Jan. 6, 1900, p. 15. The first of these questioned the editor's view, while the other two supported it. 102 The New century. Spectator, v. 83, Dec. 30, 1899: 988.AP4.S7, v. 83 Letter to the editor signed Malachi. It alludes to the controversy resulting from an editorial in the Times of Jan. 1, 1850, in which it was stated that the second half of the century had begun. Even the Prince Consort was said to have agreed with this notion. "Malachi" points out that "the first year of the first century of the world (or of any era, Christian or heathen) began with, not the year 0, but with the year 1; equally each succeeding century began and begins with the year 1." 103 The Twentieth century. Times (London), Dec. 30, 1899: 6.N&CPR Five letters to the editor, signed Herbert Stephen, Scaliger, Dionysius Maximus, J. Y. Buchanan, and Reductio ad Absurdum, comment on the suggestion mde by Sir Courtenay Boyle in the Dec. 29 issue. Four of the writers oppose and one supports him. 104 Twentieth century already begun. Sunday school times, v. 41, Dec. 30, 1899: 846-847. BV1500.S8, v. 41 Quotes correspondents who take issue with the periodical's acceptance of Jan. 1, 1900, as the beginning of the 20th century and discusses the question further. 105 The Beginning and the end. Washington post, Dec. 31, 1899: 19. illus. N&CPR An article discussing the controversy is followed by five letters, from Berkeley C. Waller, D. A. M'Knight, L. A. Boulay, G. L. Peckham, and Charles H. Wood. The first two favor 1900 as the first of the new century, and the others, 1901. A cartoon shows a 99-years-a-century advocate arguing with Father Time. 106 [Baumgartel, Gustav] Losung der Jahrhundertfrage mit dem Zirkel, von einem Deutschen. Dresden, G. Kuhtmann, 1900. 64 p. Believes that Dec. 25, 1900, is the true beginning date of the 20th century, but states that Jan. 1, 1900, must be substituted since Dec. 25 is not the first day of the year. 107 Cercignani, Emilio. La misura del tempo. Quando finische il secolo XIX? Firenze, Lumachi, 1900. 39 p. 108 Crow, William, of Stratford. The century chart ... When does the century end? When the circle is completed, December 31st 1900. Stratford, Avenue Press [1900] card. 11.5 x 7.5 cm. Held by the British Library under shelfmark 1820. h. 8. (7.). 109 Das Deutsche Reich und Preussen. 1. Abschnitt. Neujahr. In Deutscher Geschichtskalender fur 1900. Sachlich geordnete Zusammenstellung der politische wichtigsten Vorgange im In- und Ausland von Karl Wippermann. 1. Bd. Leipzig, F. W. Grunow, 1900. p.1-9.D2.D4, 1900, v. 1 Reprints various announcements and proclamations concerning the new year, which was officially designated as the first of the new century, and quotes several published sources on the question of when the century really begins. 110 End of the century. In Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events. 3d ser., v. 4; 1899. New York, D. Appleton, 1900. p. 59. AE5.A7, 1899 Explains why the year A.D. 1900 is the last of the 19th century. 111 Graf, Johann H. Wann beginnt das XX. Jahrhundert? Vortrag, gehalten im Cyklus der akademischen Vortrage. Bern, K. J. Wyss, 1900. 23 p. 112 Hirsch, Gideon M. Neunzehntes oder zwanzigstes Jahrhundert? Zeitrechnungsfragen. Mit einem Anhang: Zuschrift des Direktors der Berliner Sternwarte, Prof. Dr. W. Forster. Breslau, Preuss & Junger, 1900. 32 p. 113 Ito-dre-casa. Era storica intermediaria alla soluzione sul principio del secolo; complemento al calendario del 1o secolo dell'era volgare. Modena, Societa tip. Modenese, 1900. 20 p. 114 Porro, Francesco. Il principio del secolo; due articoli. Torino, S. Lattes, 1900. 23 p. Reprinted from Il Pensiero italiano, anno 2, luglio/ag. 1892, and Gazzetta del popolo, 18 genn. 1899. 115 Schubring, Gustav. Das neue Jahrhundert und der christliche Kalender. Erfurt, F. Bartholomaus, 1900. 8 p. Discussed in "Zur Jahrhundertwende" in Zeitschrift fur Naturwissenschaften, 73. Bd., 27. Feb. 1901, p. 411-415 (Q3.Z4, v. 73). 116 Whitmell, Charles T. The twentieth century: 1st January, 1901. In Leeds Astronomical Society. Journal and transactions. no. 7; 1899. Leeds, R. Jackson [1900] p. 93. QB1.L4a, no. 7 Reprints text of a letter to the editor of the Yorkshire Post explaining matters to those who "are still not clear why the 20th Century does not begin until 1st January, 1901." 117 The Beginning of the century. Observatory, v. 23, Jan. 1900: 69. QB1.O2, v. 23 Briefly reports the official decision in Germany to celebrate the beginning of the 20th century on Jan. 1, 1900, and mentions that in Sweden the year 1900 is also to be regarded as the first of the 20th century. 118 [End of the century] Current literature, v. 27, Jan. 1900: 1. AP2.C95, v. 27 Editorial comment. Cites opposing views but takes no stand. 119 The End of this century. Cram's magazine, v. 1, Jan. 1900: 256-257. AP2.C88, v. 1 "... the 20th Century does not, cannot begin until the first second of the year 1901, or instantly after midnight on Dec. 31st, 1900." 120 Die Jahrhundert-Zahlung. Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, 58. Bd., Jan. 1900: 107-108. AP30.S7, v. 58 Points out that Schiller and Goethe regarded Jan. 1, 1800, as the first day of the 19th century and concludes, "Wenn so grosse deutsche Geister das 19. Jahrhundert mit 1800 anfingen, so konnen wir es getrost auch mit 1899 schliessen." 121 Koppe, Max. Der Anfang des Jahrhunderts; eine Betrachtung uber Zahlen und Messen. Zeitschrift fur den physikalischen und chemischen Unterricht, 13. Jahrg., Jan. 1900: 1-9. QC1.Z4, v. 13 Argues for reckoning the beginning of the 20th century with the year 1900. 122 The Last year of the century. American monthly review of reviews, v. 21, Jan. 1900: 3. AP2.R4, v. 21 "We must give the nineteenth century the 365 days that belong to its hundredth and final year before we begin the year 1 of the twentieth century." 123 McCormack, Thomas J. The year zero. Open court, v. 14, Jan. 1900: 32-36. AP2.O495, v. 14 Chiefly a rendering into English of Pietzker's essay, "Das Jahr 'Null.'" 124 The Nineteenth century. Notes and queries and historic magazine, v. 18, Jan. 1900: 23. AG305.H5, v. 18 Reply to a query, "Is there any book or record as to whether there was any discussion in the latter years of the eighteenth century as to when the nineteenth was to begin?" in v. 17, Nov./Dec. 1899, p. 224. Cites Robert Southey, who in the initial chapter of The Doctor stated that there was a great controversy. 125 Ritchie, John. Where the new century will really begin. Ladies home journal, v. 17, Jan. 1900: 7. illus. MicRR 05422 Also deals with the question of when the new century begins. Summarized as "Dawn of the Twentieth Century" in Popular Astronomy, v. 8, Mar. 1900, p. 161-162 (QB1.P8, v. 8). 126 Saint-Saens, Camille. Quand commence le vingtieme siecle. In Societe astronomique de France. Bulletin, 14. annee, janv. 1900: 52. QB1.S6, v. 14 Points out that when referring to the age of a person or other living creature, the number 1 signifies that the first year has been completed, while in chronology it means that the first year has begun. 127 Zum Jahr Null. Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, 31. Jahrg., 1. Heft, 1900: 17-18.Q3.Z38, v. 31 Comments on a newspaper controversy that developed in a small town in Wurttemberg as a result of Kewitsch's article, "Das neue Jahrhundert" (entry 76). 128 Germany. Times (London), Jan. 1, 1900: 6. N&CPR A short article on the official court celebrations ordered by the emperor to mark the beginning of the 20th century on Jan. 1, 1900. Detailed descriptions of these events can be found under the heading "The New Year in Germany" in the issue of Jan. 2, p. 3. 129 The Twentieth century. Times (London), Jan. 1, 1900: 11.N&CPR Eighteen letters to the editor, from E. J. Reed, John Attfield, J. F. Hogan, Geo. B., J. W. Sharpe, Edward Steward, Andrew N. Agnew, Arthur A. Sykes, J. B. Dimbleby, H. E. Malden, H. W. Pullen, Henry Haydon, Rankine Dawson, W. Day, J. B. C., H. B. P., E. M., and P. H. B. Of those expressing an intelligible opinion on the matter, 10 held that the 20th century begins on Jan. 1, 1901, and five argued for Jan. 1, 1900. The letter from P. H. B. accompanied a correspondence, found in a book of old newspaper cuttings, relating to the controversy 100 years earlier (involving R. B. Sheridan, T. Westley, J. Richardson, and C. J. Fox). 130 The Twentieth century. Times (London), Jan. 2, 1900: 9.N&CPR Fourteen letters to the editor, one from Sir Courtenay Boyle responding to some of the critics whose letters appeared in the Jan. 1 issue, and the rest from the Earl of Dunraven, James Edmunds, John Sargeaunt, Willoughby Maycock, H. N. Grimley, K. B. Ferguson, W. J. Gordon, Harold B. Barkworth, A Secretary, L. E. H., C. F. N., L. Y. L., and A. C. Of these 13, eight support Jan. 1, 1901, as the first year of the new century, and two favor Jan. 1, 1900; the letter from L. E. H. quotes a passage from the Gentleman's Magazine to illustrate the parallel controversy in 1800. 131 We close an incident. Washington post, Jan. 2, 1900: 6.N&CPR Editorial announcing that "no more controversy over the close of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century can be exploited in these columns, at least during the year 1900." 132 The Twentieth century. Times (London), Jan. 3, 1900: 8.N&CPR Seven letters to the editor, signed Herbert Stephen, Charles Bright, G. J. Turner, C. A. Vince, Geo. B., Dionysius Maximus, and Gregory. Four of these support the view that the new century begins in 1901, and one maintains that it began Jan. 1, 1900. 133 The Year 1900. World, v. 52, Jan. 3, 1900: 7.AP4.W8, v. 52 The first paragraph deals with the dispute, remarking that "the parties are at feud as mortal as that which divided the Big-Endians and Little- Endians in Swift's satire." Readers are assured that "The century is not completed until the last of its hundred years has come to an end; that is to say, the nineteenth century will not finish until midnight on the last day of December 1900." 134 The Twentieth century. Times (London), Jan. 4, 1900: 10.N&CPR Eight letters to the editor, signed G., Only a Layman, T. Bailey Saunders, Medway, M. L. Craven, A. K. S., Dionysius Minimus, and Hastings C. Dent. Of those expressing clear opinions on the matter, two favor 1901 as the first year of the new century, and two, 1900. 135 Stanley, William F. The twentieth century? English mechanic and world of science, v. 70, Jan. 5, 1900: 474. MicRR 85176 Having read the remarks of "A Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society" on this subject in the previous issue, the writer says he finds it difficult to accept the argument that "there never was a year 0." The "Fellow" comments on this letter in the Jan. 12 issue, p. 493. 136 The Twentieth century? English mechanic and world of science, v. 70, Jan. 5, 1900: 474. MicRR 85176 A letter signed "Tenbyten," quoting Lalande's remarks from the Gentleman's Magazine of Apr. 1800 (cited in note to entry 50). 137 The Twentieth century. Times (London), Jan. 5, 1900: 6. N&CPR Five letters to the editor, signed A. A. Common, R. M. Minton- Senhouse, Dionysius Maximus, R. G. T., and S.P.Q.R. Four express a clear preference for 1901 as the beginning of the new century. Preceding the letters is a reprint of a leading article on the subject from the Times of Dec. 26, 1799, sent by Sir Courtenay Boyle (see entry 40). 138 The Twentieth century. Times (London), Jan. 6, 1900: 12. N&CPR Nine letters to the editor, signed Courtenay Boyle, Robert Pierpoint, Alan S. Cole, H. W. S.-W., A. G., Zeno, C. Brinsley Marlay, Henry Wilson, and F. J. R. Carulla. Only the first and last of these support 1900 as the beginning of the new century. Sir Courtenay refers to a leading article in the Times of Dec. 31, 1849, the writer of which appears to believe that the first half of the 19th century had come to an end; H. W. S.-W. quotes a letter received from the Astronomer Royal; A. G. shows that "in Berlin at any rate, the 18th century was regarded as including the year 1800 and as ending on the 31st of December in that year," and Marlay quotes a pronouncement of the Bureau des longitudes published in Le Temps. 139 The Twentieth century. Times (London), Jan. 9, 1900: 15. N&CPR Nine letters to the editor, signed Charles Bright, F. A. Straker, T. E. Young, A. C. C., John W. Loch, R. G., C. R. K., John Hodgkin, and M. L. Craven. All of the eight expressing clear opinions are in favor of 1901 as the first year of the new century. 140 May, Phil. Portrait of a calculating gentleman (not at all a bad looking chap) who has solved the problem as to whether we are in the nineteenth or twentieth century. Punch, v. 118, Jan. 10, 1900: 32. illus. AP101.P8, v. 118 Cartoon. 141 Topics of the times. New York times, v. 49, Jan. 10, 1900: 6. N&CPR Commenting on a reader's protest against ridiculing those who believe the 20th century has already begun, the editor points out (once again) that there is no evidence of a year 0 as the first year of the Christian era. 142 The Twentieth century. (Some specimen letters addressed to various editors.) (Forwarded per A. A. S.) Punch, v. 118, Jan. 10, 1900: 24. AP101.P8, v. 118 Facetious. A pertinent comment by Mr. Bloskins appears at the end of the column. 143 The Twentieth century. Times (London), Jan. 10, 1900: 7. N&CPR Letters to the editor from Oliver Lodge and Albert Orme. Lodge discusses the chronological conventions involved in the controversy and concludes, "It appears to be most in accordance with the ideas of the old chronologist who settled the Christian era to label the year of the Birth 1 A.D., to call this the 1900th year, and to end the century next December." 144 White, Horatio S. Erring with Plato. Nation, v. 70, Jan. 11, 1900: 31. AP2.N2, v. 70 Letter to the editor citing passages from Heine, Schiller, and Goethe to show that these writers were also confused about the first year of the century. 145 Carter, Robert E. That twentieth century again. New York times, v. 49, Jan. 12, 1900: 6. N&CPR Letter to the editor. The writer thinks that regarding Jan. 1, 1900, as the beginning of the 20th century can be justified because the birth of Christ is believed to have occurred before the year chosen to begin the Christian era. 146 Topics of the times. New York times, v. 49, Jan. 12, 1900: 6. N&CPR Editorial quoting remarks of Capt. C. H. Davis, superintendent of the U.S. Naval Observatory. "'There can be,' says the Captain, with an impatience which we are proud to share, 'there can be no question of "opinion" as to the date of the commencement of the twentieth century any more than there can be a question of opinion on any other simple arithmetical fact. The twentieth century commences with the 1st of January, 1901.'" 147 The Twentieth century? English mechanic and world of science, v. 70, Jan. 12, 1900: 494. MicRR 85176 H. B. F. comments on William F. Stanley's letter published in the previous issue (entry 135). 148 Glossen zur Tagesgeschichte [Jahrhundertwende] Ethische Kultur, 8. Jahrg., 13. Jan. 1900: 14. 4-Serials Points out that the two zeros and the change of 8 into 9 almost inevitably served to lead people astray concerning the end of the century, and expresses regret that learned persons did not take upon themselves the duty of clearing up the confusion in a timely manner. As a result, Germany is almost alone among the nations in celebrating the arrival of the new century a year early. See the comments of Wilhelm J. Foerster, headed "Zur Frage des Jahrhundert-Anfanges," in the 20. Jan. issue, p. 23-24, and the response, "In Bezug auf die 'Jahrhundertwende,'" signed "d.," in the 27. Jan. issue, p. 31. 149 The New century. Scientific American, v. 82, Jan. 13, 1900: 18. T1.S5, v. 82 "In the daily and weekly press we find a fierce epistolary battle raging between those who believe that the year 1899 marks the close of the nineteenth century and those who hold that not until 1901 shall we cross the threshold that divides us from a new era ... "It seems so difficult to understand that 1800, 1900, 2000, designate not the beginning, but the end of a century, that one naturally inquires the origin of the error. It may be that the mistake is due to a kind of optical illusion ... "A hundred years ago the same wordy war was waged; a hundred years hence it will be renewed; and thus it will go on as century after century comes rolling along. It is a venerable error, long-lived and perhaps immortal." 150 Kellogg, Peter C. The ending of the century. New York times, v. 49, Jan. 14, 1900: 20. N&CPR Letter to the editor demolishing Robert E. Carter's pro-1900 arguments published two days earlier (entry 145). 151 Le XIXe siecle est-il fini? La Quinzaine, t. 32, 16 janv. 1900: 304. AP20.Q7, v. 32 A short paragraph that answers the query in the negative, quoting among others the editors of the Annuaire of the Bureau des longitudes: "Le XIXe siecle finira le 31 decembre 1900 a minuit." 152 Did Plato err? Nation, v. 70, Jan. 18, 1900: 52. AP2.N2, v. 70 Letters to the editor from William M. Payne and Eugene Leser commenting on the supposed error of Schiller and Goethe regarding the first year of the 19th century (see entry 144). 153 Bennett, F. ... A point about the century which has been missed. English mechanic and world of science, v. 70, Jan. 19, 1900: 510. MicRR 85176 Expresses the view that the monk who established our chronology blundered, and that there should have been two zero years--A.D. 0, and the preceding year, B.C. 0! 154 Stanley, William F. Twentieth century. English mechanic and world of science, v. 70, Jan. 19, 1900: 517. MicRR 85176 "I think a note should be made that the Emperor William's opinion, that the century was complete in 1900, is only the general consensus of scientific opinion in Germany." 155 Kirwan, Charles de. La fin du siecle. Cosmos, nouv. ser., t. 42, 20 janv. 1900: 66. Q2.C8, n.s., v. 42 Quotes the statement on this question in the Annuaire for 1900 issued by the Bureau des longitudes. 156 Lynn, William T. The beginning of the twentieth century. Notes and queries, 9th ser., v. 5, Jan. 20, 1900: 41-42. AG305.N7, s. 9, v. 5 The commencement of the new century "obviously will not take place until 1 January, 1901. Nevertheless, strange as it may appear, there are some who hold that it has already begun ..." 157 Franklin, F. G. The century once more. Nation, v. 70, Jan. 25, 1900: 71. AP2.N2, v. 70 Letter to the editor including the first 32 lines of a poem published in the Connecticut Courant for Jan. 5, 1801. The poem, dated Jan. 1, 1801, begins "Precisely twelve o'clock, last night,/The Eighteenth Century took its flight," and goes on to discuss the confusion of those who thought it had ended the year before. 158 Edmunds, James. The twentieth century. English mechanic and world of science, v. 70, Jan. 26, 1900: 540. illus. MicRR 85176 Presents a brief history of our chronology and calendar and their Roman precursors. Since the Christian era did not begin with a zero year, it is clear "that the 1900th year has to be completed before the 19th century is finished." A correction appears in the Feb. 2 issue, p. 558. Reprinted in the Observatory, v. 23, Feb. 1900, p. 84-87 (QB1.O2, v. 23), and in Popular Astronomy, v. 8, Mar. 1900, p. 140-143 (QB1.P8, v. 8). 159 Ausserungen beruhmter Manner (Mathematiker) uber den Beginn der Jahrhunderte (Wolf, Bode, Hindenburg, Gauss). Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, 31. Jahrg., 2. Heft, 1900: 93-94. Q3.Z38, v. 31 Contents: 1. Von Hindenburg, Prof. d. Mathematik in Leipzig (1741-1808). Wolf und Bode.--2. Von Gauss. The first section is reprinted from the Leipziger Neueste Nachrichten of Jan. 1, 1900. The article cites Hindenburg, who himself quotes Christian, Freiherr von Wolff and Johann Elert Bode in support of the view that the 20th century begins in 1901. Hindenburg's publication on the subject in 1800 caused the city of Leipzig to celebrate the opening of the 19th century on Jan. 1, 1801. The second section is an excerpt from a letter Gauss wrote to Bolyai on Dec. 16, 1799, in which he implies a preference for regarding that year as the last of the 18th century. 160 Bergold, E. Zum Jahrhundert-Streit. Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, 31. Jahrg., 2. Heft, 1900: 94-96. Q3.Z38, v. 31 Criticizes the treatment of this matter by Kewitsch in Heft 7 of 1899 and by the editor in Heft 1 of 1900 (entries 76 and 127) as suggesting that it is a purely academic question, upon which one's viewpoint is a matter of choice. By referring to chronological practices in classical antiquity, upon which the chronology of Dionysius Exiguus was based, he shows that there can be only one current answer to the question--in the case of the 20th century, it can begin only on Jan. 1, 1901. Kewitsch's response, ""Erwiderung von Kewitsch gegen Berghold [sic]" appears on p. 139-140. 161 [Commencement of the new century] Science-gossip, new ser., v. 6, Feb. 1900: 282. Q1.S4, n.s., v. 6 Short paragraph concluding, despite contrary views published in some newspapers, that "We are still in the 19th century, and many things may yet happen before its conclusion." 162 Dix-neuvieme ou vingtieme siecle? Ou nous en sommes. Bibliotheque universelle et revue suisse, t. 17, fev. 1900: 416-418. AP24.B5, v. 17 "Il faut croire que le nombre de ceux qui ont du temps a perdre est tres considerable, et que les sujets de 'copie' manquent a boucoup de journalistes, quand on voit combien de discussions, orales ou ecrites, ont ete engagees sur la question de savoir si l'annee 1900 fait partie du dix-neuvieme ou du vingtieme siecle ... Car il n'y pas a en douter: 1900 est la derniere annee du dix- neuvieme siecle: ce n'est pas la premiere annee du vingtieme." 163 End of the century. Current literature, v. 27, Feb. 1900: 100. AP2.C95, v. 27 Editorial comment. Quotes a cable dispatch from London to demonstrate that the "debate over the ending of the century is by no means confined ... to the people of the United States." 164 XIX.-XX.--Division of the centuries. Father Time's memory at fault. Horological journal, v. 42, Feb. 1900: 73-76. illus. TS540.H8, v. 42 Signed "Beta." Discusses the controversy without taking sides. 165 The Only way. Macmillan's magazine, v. 81, Feb. 1900: 309-310. AP4.M2, v. 81 Poem signed A. G. After making fun of some of the arguments used by the pro-1900 faction, the writer ends with a mock surrender to the Kaiser's decision: "Hail, then, to His august decree,/Who, seated high on Potsdam's throne,/Proclaims the Nineteenth Century/Is gone!" Reprinted in the Living Age, v. 224, Mar. 24, 1900, p. 741-742 (MicRR 32984). 166 This twentieth century. A retractation. Irish monthly, v. 28, Feb. 1900: 57-59. AP4.I7, v. 28 The writer revises his earlier opinion that the year 1900 was the last of the 19th century and now seeks to convince his readers that "the Twentieth Century is already a month old." Among other arguments, he cites "the Act of Parliament of 1752, which makes the century close at midnight on December 31, 1899." 167 The Twentieth century. Macmillan's magazine, v. 81, Feb. 1900: 310-312. AP4.M2, v. 81 Letter to the editor signed "Dionysius Minimus" and dated January 19th, 1900. Expresses the view that to prefer Jan. 1, 1901, as the beginning date of the 20th century is to "prefer what is bizarre, distracting, and uncomfortable to what is simple, straightforward, and in the natural order of things ..." Reprinted in the Living Age, v. 224, Mar. 24, 1900, p. 742-744 (MicRR 32984). 168 [Ule, Willi] Die Jahrhundertwende. Die Natur, 49. Jahrg., 18. Feb. 1900: 94. Q3.N2, v. 49 Regards the year 1900 as belonging to the 19th century, since there was no zero year. 169 Le Vingtieme siecle. In Societe astronomique de France, Paris. Bulletin, 14. annee, fev. 1900: 99-100. QB1.S6, v.14 A letter from General Parmentier supporting 1901 as the first year of the 20th century is followed by a description of the festivities in Berlin celebrating the arrival of the new century on Jan. 1, 1900. Flammarion adds a note remarking, "puisque l'an 1899 est, par definition meme, la 1899e annee de l'ere chretienne, l'annee 1900 est la 1900e, et le siecle finira avec elle." 170 Winterwood, Geoffrey. Which century? Sunday magazine, new ser., v. 29, Feb. 1900: 137. AP4.S85, n.s., v. 29 "The arguments of those who contend that the twentieth century began on the 1st January 1900 are often extremely ingenious, but so far as we have seen them they turn on analogies which are inexact and fallacious ... Most of us fail to realise that the Dionysian reckoning was grafted on an old system of chronology, that the first year was that to which was assigned the birth of Christ at Bethlehem, and that the year preceding was the year B.C. 1." 171 Beginning of the twentieth century. Popular astronomy, v. 8, Mar. 1900: 160. QB1.P8, v. 8 172 The Date-line. Century magazine, v. 59, Mar. 1900: 801-802. AP2.C4, v. 59 Editorial. Remarks that "1900 is the last year of the nineteenth century, and not the first of the twentieth," citing the definition of "century" in the Century Dictionary, and goes on to reflect upon the "stir in the minds of men occasioned by so great a change in the date as the one made this year ..." 173 Foerster, Wilhelm J. Zwei Ausserungen uber die Jahrhundertwende. Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, 31. Jahrg., 3. Heft, 1900: 178-181. Q3.Z38, v. 31 Reprints. The first article is from the Preussischer Normalkalender for 1901 (published here with a short addendum), and the second, "Wann beginnt das neue Jahrhundert?" is from Ethische Kultur, 8. Jahrg., 20. Jan. 1900, p. 23-24 (4-Serials). In both, Foerster argues for a method of reckoning centuries that supports the decision of the Prussian authorities to celebrate the beginning of the 20th century on Jan. 1, 1900. The editor of the Zeitschrift, Volkmar Hoffmann, adds a few other examples of supporting arguments (p. 182). 174 Hobhouse, Sir Arthur Hobhouse, 1st Baron. The battle of the centuries. Contemporary review, v. 77, Mar. 1900: 397-410. AP4.C7, v. 77 Considers the arguments used by those who believe that the 20th century began on Jan. 1, 1900, as recorded in letters to the editor of the Times. "I confess," writes Lord Hobhouse, "to having felt much surprise when I first found that a truth, which I had thought to be as rudimentary as the truth that 2 + 2 make 4, was questioned, not only in the superficial way in which the unreflecting may question anything, but seriously and by educated men. But my surprise has been increased by trying to understand what reason exists for this questioning, and by finding that many of the reasons assigned are irrelevant, many are destructive of the conclusion in support of which they are advanced, and that such as would be relevant and logical have no basis whatever to maintain them in point of fact ... I suppose that this dispute will die away for the present, but perhaps in the year 2000 our great grandchildren will revive it, and will consult the files of the Times or those (who knows?) of the CONTEMPORARY REVIEW, for arguments to show that 1999 years make up 20 centuries." 175 Hoffmann, Volkmar. Der Streit uber den Beginn des Jahrhunderts in neuer Beleuchtung. Auseinandersetzung und Kompromiss- Vorschlag. Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, 31. Jahrg., 3. Heft, 1900: 169-177. Q3.Z38, v. 31 Includes a prediction that humanity will not wait until Jan. 1, 2001, to celebrate the beginning of the new millennium. 176 Der Streit um den Jahrhundertanfang. Gaea; Natur und Leben, 36. Jahrg., Marz 1900: 187-188. Q3.G2, v. 36 Points to all the authorities that have used the 100th year in which to begin centuries, from Charlemagne on, and concludes that this clearly supports Jan. 1, 1900, as the opening date of the 20th century. 177 Tille, Alexander. Der Beginn des nachsten Jahrhunderts. Die Zukunft, 30. Bd., 10. Marz 1900: 425-431. MicRR 39088 Discusses the confusion and makes it clear that, in the present system of counting years, the new century will begin only with the year 1901. 178 Le Siecle et la centieme annee. L'Intermediaire des chercheurs et curieux, v. 41, 7, 22 avril 1900: columns 579, 704. AG309.I6, v. 41 An inquirer cites a newspaper report to the effect that a disagreement between French and German views concerning the end of the the century could be ascribed to a difference in meaning between the words "Jahrhundert" and "siecle." The respondent states that views on the matter were much the same in both countries; while popular opinion was divided, the scientific academies of both nations agreed that the new century would not begin until Jan. 1, 1901. 179 Schwab, Gustav. Der Beginn des Jahrhunderts. Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, 31. Jahrg., 5. Heft, 1900: 356-358. Q3.Z38, v. 31 180 Topics of the times. New York times, v. 50, Nov. 9, 1900: 6. N&CPR Editorial commenting on the dispatch from Rome announcing that on Dec. 31, 1900, Pope Leo XIII would celebrate the last mass of the century. 181 Evans, John W. The coming of the new century. Its spasmodic career across the map. Sphere, v. 3, Dec. 29, 1900: 368-369. illus. AP4.S73, v. 3 Among the pictures is one of a ship; the caption reads, "The first people to enter the new century may, perhaps, be on a vessel crossing the date line at midnight on December 31, 1900. The vessel shown here is one of the Canadian Pacific fleet which regularly crosses the 180 deg. line on her journeys from Vancouver to Hong Kong. Should she pass at the auspicious moment it will be possible for the bow watch who has entered the twentieth century to hail the man at the stern who, but a few yards away, is still a century behind." 182 The Century change of 1801. New York times, v. 50, Dec. 30, 1900: 18. N&CPR Notes that the newspapers then "seem to have been as busy with the dispute as to the initial year of the century as a certain part of the public was a year ago." Quotes from the "Ode to the Century" published in the Connecticut Courant of Jan. 5, 1801, and a letter published in the Columbian Centinel (Boston) on Jan. 1, 1801, predicting the renewal of "the century dispute" in a hundred years' time. 183 Ahrens, Wilhelm E. M. G. Der Jahrhundertanfang. In his Mathematische Unterhaltungen und Spiele. Leipzig, B. G. Teubner, 1901. p. 389-393. QA95.A28 Bibliographic footnotes. 184 Baumgartel, Gustav. Polemik uber die Jahrhundertfrage zwischen dem Culturhistoriker Prof. Dr. Henne am Rhyn, Staatsarchivar in St. Gallen, und dem Architekten Gustav Baumgartel, Dresden, als Verfasser der beiden Schriften: "Losung der Jahrhundertfrage mit dem Zirkel" und "Warum konnte die Jahrhundertfrage nicht einheitlich gelost werden?" Anhang: Erorterung uber die Bedeutung der "0" also Jahresbezeichnung vom Standpunkte der Chronologie. Dresden, 1901. 20, 4 p. NN 185 B[aumgartel], G[ustav] Warum konnte die Jahrhundertfrage nicht einheitlich gelost werden? 1900 oder 1901. Mit bildlicher Darstellung. Dresden, G. Kuhtmann, 1901. 7 p. illus. Assumes that Christ was born on Dec. 25, 1 B.C., which year is numbered 0 in astronomical chronology. The author believes that year should be regarded as the first of our era, which would mean that the 20th century began on Jan. 1, 1900. 186 The Beginning of the century. In The Daily news almanac and political register. 17th year; 1901. Chicago. p. 184. AY67.C4N5, 1901 Brief explanation of why "Dec. 31, 1900, was the last day of the nineteenth century, and the twentieth century began Jan. 1, 1901." 187 Close of the old century. In Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events. 3d ser., v. 5; 1900. New York, D. Appleton, 1901. p. 428. AE5.A7, 1900 Describes how New York City welcomed the 20th century on the night of Dec. 31, 1900. See also "Twentieth Century's Triumphant Entry" in the New York Times, v. 50, Jan. 1, 1901, p. 1-2 (N&CPR). 188 Kewitsch, Georg. Die astronomische Era und das Jahrhundert 19 (Jahrhundertwende). Freiburg i.B., C. Troemer, 1901. 15 p. 189 Fievez, Charles. A propos du XXe siecle. In Societe belge d'astronomie. Bulletin, 6. annee, janv. 1901: 26-27. QB1.S7, v. 6 190 Foerster, Wilhelm J. Das neue Jahrhundert und die Reform unseres Zahlungswesens. In Vereinigung von Freunden der Astronomie und kosmischen Physik. Mitteilungen, 11. Jahrg., Jan. 1901: 8-16. QB1.V4, v. 11 191 Griffith, George. Where will the 20th century commence? Pearson's magazine, v. 11, Jan. 1901: 3-6. illus. AP2.P35, v. 11 "... the nineteenth century cannot end until Christendom has counted nineteen hundred years." Points out that the 20th century will begin at midnight at East Cape, Siberia, and also discusses the question of when and where the first day of the 20th century will dawn. 192 Kewitsch, Georg. Die astronomische Era. Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, 32. Jahrg., 1. Heft, 1901: 1-9. Q3.Z38, v. 32 Proposes a general adoption of the astronomical system of chronology. This involves substituting a year 0 for 1 B.C. and designating earlier years with minus signs (e.g., 2 B.C. becomes -1). The year 0 would then become the first in the Christian era, the years 0 to 99 would be called century 0, the years 1900 to 1999 would constitute century 19, and the confusion over the turn of the century would cease. 193 Lancaster, Albert B. M. Le XXe siecle. Ciel et terre, 21. annee, 1 janv. 1901: 522-523. QB1.C5, v. 21 194 Anding, Ernst. Ueber den Beginn des Jahrhunderts. Bayerisches Industrie- und Gewerbeblatt, 87. Jahrg., 5.-19. Jan. 1901: 3-4, 9-12, 18-20. T3.B35, v. 87 Considers arguments for both views but favors 1901. 195 Keller, Arthur I. Welcoming the twentieth century. Harper's weekly, v. 45, Jan. 5, 1901: 1. illus. AP2.H32, v. 45 Drawing shows a dozen people of all ages, the adults of the family with wine glasses raised, gathering at a grandfather clock as midnight approaches. 196 Welcome to the new century. Mail and express illustrated Saturday magazine, Jan. 5, 1901: 5. illus. AP2.S17, 1901 Drawings with captions. The larger one shows crowds at the New York city hall celebrating at midnight, Dec. 31, 1900. The smaller one depicts the illuminated buildings of the city as seen from the riverfront the same night. 197 Flammarion, Camille. Quel jour et en quel pays a commence le vingtieme siecle? La Nouvelle revue, nouv. ser., t. 8, 15 fev. 1901: 484-494. MicRR 04839 Summarized in a report entitled "In quale giorno ed in quale paese e incominciato il ventesimo secolo" in La Lettura, anno 1, mar. 1901, p. 279-280 (AP37.L4, v. 1). 198 Ein nachtraglicher Ausspruch uber die Jahrhundertwende. (Von einem Schweizer.) Zeitschrift fur mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht, 32. Jahrg., 3. Heft, 1901: 183. Q3.Z38, v. 32 Dated Zurich, June 22, 1900, and signed Dr. Bl., a letter to the editor comments on the mildness of the controversy in Switzerland, remarking that many were pleased that the old century had not yet run its course. The only official action observed by the writer was a notice from the church committee in Zurich, which stated that its century would begin on Jan. 1, 1901. 199 Winterich, John T. Father Time's big night out. Nation's business, v. 37, Jan. 1949: 46-48, 50. col. illus. HF1.N4, v. 37 "A look back to the birth of the twentieth century suggests what is in store when the year 2001 comes." 200 Heiland, Fritz. Wann beginnt ein Jahrhundert? Die Sterne, 27. Jahrg., Heft 1/2, 1951: 1-2. QB1.S85, v. 27 An English translation by Alma M. Hammer, "When Does a Century Begin?" appears in Popular Astronomy, v. 59, June 1951, p. 341-342 (QB1.P8, v. 59). 201 Mid-century? In U.S. Library of Congress. Information bulletin, v. 9, Jan. 2, 1950: 21. Z733.U57I6, v. 9 On the end of the first half of the 20th century. Top of Page

End of the Twentieth Century

202 Quinn, Jim. ... and every year counts. Washington post weekend, Dec. 28, 1979: 43. N&CPR A friend of the writer's points out that 1980 is "the last year of the seventh decade of the 20th century." (It was actually the last year of the eighth decade.) 203 [Doggett, LeRoy E.] Decade & century. [Washington, D.C.] U.S. Naval Observatory, Nautical Almanac Office, 1980. 1 sheet. Briefly describes the correct method of reckoning the beginning and ending of decades and centuries. 204 Debut du siecle prochain. L'Intermediaire des chercheurs et curieux, nouv. ser., 31. annee, juin, oct., dec. 1981: columns 572-573, 945-950, 1182-1183. AG309.I64, n.s., v. 31 The question, raised by Jean-Marc Blanc, received an immediate (and unsatisfactory) response from the editorial staff; subsequent replies furnished overlong and complicated explanations of this very simple matter. Apparently nobody thought to look into the journal's own files for the answers supplied when the question came up toward the end of the previous century. 205 When do centuries start? Discover, v. 4, Oct. 1983: 77. Q1.D57, v. 4 A letter from Dick Ridgway questioning the answer given to one of the "Mind Benders" on p. 98 of the Sept. 1983 issue, which turns on the question of the dividing point between centuries. The editor's response states, "Centuries end on the last day of the year ending with the numbers 00; the twenty-first century will not begin until January 1, 2001." 206 As the world turns. Esquire, v. 101, Jan. 1984: 36. AP2.E845, v. 101 "... an eager band of young professionals is busy preparing for what has been billed as the world's most extravagant millennium bash. The World Millennium Ball will begin (if all goes according to plan) at six P.M. Greenwich time on December 31, 1999, at the Great Pyramid of Cheops ..." 207 Leight, Warren D. How to act your (new) age. Northwest Orient, v. 16, Dec. 1985: 13-15. illus. Facetious advice on preparing for the third millennium, which the author assumes will begin Jan. 1, 2000. 208 Freburger, William J. A siecle with 14 years left is no joke. National Catholic reporter, v. 22, Mar. 28, 1986: 19. illus. MicRR 02591 BX "Even now as we enter the fin de siecle, it is difficult to say what the coming of the millennium will bring. I suppose the only problem we can tackle immediately is the question: Does the millennium begin Jan. 1, 2000, or Jan. 1, 2001?" 209 White, Bill. Right day, wrong century. Science news, v. 130, Aug. 23, 1986: 126. Q1.S76, v. 130 Letter to the editor pointing out a mistake in a short note in the July 12 issue (p. 22) entitled "Rickover Dead at 86." It was stated there that the admiral had been "born on the 27th day of this century" although the year of his birth was 1900, the last year of the previous century. White continues, "A lot of misinformed people are going to get drunk on the night of Dec. 31, 1999, thinking they are celebrating a new century and a new millennium. I don't suppose there's much hope you and other "esoteric" publications can make them understand their error, but please, don't perpetuate the error yourselves!" 210 Le XXIe siecle ne commence pas en l'an 2000 ... Science & vie, no 836, mai 1987: 8. T2.S3, 1987 Quotes part of a letter from M. F. Georges of Paris, calling attention to the fact that the Genitron, a device on display at the Centre Pompidou which is counting off the seconds of time remaining in the present millennium, has as its zero point Jan. 1, 2000, a year short. The editor comments, "Contrairement a ce que pensent bizarrement la plupart des gens, le XXIe siecle ne commencera qu'apres zero heure le 31 decembre 2000. Mais peut-etre les createurs du Genitron ont-ils voulu simplement distinguer la derniere annee du siecle ..." This piece generated so many letters from puzzled and unconvinced readers that two further short articles were published in an attempt to clarify matters: "Troisieme millenaire (bis)" in no 837, juin, p. 6, and "Le XXIe siecle (ter)" in no 838, juil., p. 4. 211 Hagedorn, Ann. To mark year 2000, some events will be out of this world. Fears of apocalypse spark plans for rescue by blimp; a big bash at the pyramid. Wall Street journal, v. 211, June 27, 1988: 1, 6. N&CPR The writer and her subjects evidently assume that the year 2000 marks the beginning, rather than the end, of a millennium. 212 Kulikov, G. S. Kogda nachntsia tret'e tysiacheletie? Zemlia i vselennaia, iiul'/avg. 1988:93-95. QB1.Z47, 1988 Concludes that the third millennium will begin at midnight, Dec. 31, 2000. 213 Fulmer, Dina. Turn of the century. Psychology today, May 1989: 6. BF1.P855, 1989 Letter to the editor calling attention to the erroneous assumption, in an article published in the Dec. 1988 issue, that the 21st century will begin on Jan. 1, 2000. 214 Smith, Charles W. There was no year 0. Washington post, May 15, 1989: A8. N&CPR Letter to the editor. This inspired a response from Steve Sullivan, published in the May 27 issue, p. A23, under the heading "Symbolic Piffle," manifesting exasperation with the traditions of history and chronology. 215 Lycett, Andrew. Where will you be at midnight on December 31, 1999? Times (London), May 29, 1989: 13. ports. N&CPR On various plans for celebrating the third millennium in Britain-- generally, a year too soon. 216 Schwartz, Hillel. Century's end; a cultural history of the fin de siecle from the 990s through the 1990s. New York, Doubleday [1990] 397 p. illus. CB428.S39 1990 Bibliographic references included in "Endnotes" (p. [299]-375). For discussion of the dispute about the dividing point between centuries, see the index under "centurial feuds." Phil May's cartoon (see entry 140) is reproduced on p. [154] 217 Hamel, Jurgen. Wann beginnt das 3. Jahrtausend? Jahrzehnt, Jahrhundert, Jahrtausend--wo liegen Anfang und Ende? Wissenschaft und Fortschritt, 40. Jahrg., Heft 1, 1990: 16-17. illus. Q3.W5, v. 40 References (3): p. 17. Additional illustrations appear on the inside front cover of the issue. Points out that the new century and millennium will not begin until Jan. 1, 2001. 218 Roberts, Chalmers M. To celebrate or not--when is the question. Smithsonian, v. 20, Jan. 1990: 172. col. illus. AS30.S6, v. 20 219 R[ebeyrol], Y[vonne] Ce siecle avait un an... Le Monde, 2 janv. 1990: 16. N&CPR Cites the definition of "siecle" in Le Grand Larousse and states, "Nous avons donc encore un an pour nous preparer a entamer la derniere decennie du vingtieme siecle et onze ans avant d'arriver, le 1e janvier 2001, au vingt et unieme siecle." 220 Campbell, Steuart. A year in a thousand; Steuart Campbell on the debate about when the millennium ends. New scientist, v. 125, Feb. 10, 1990: 66. illus. Q1.N52, v. 125 Believes that those supporting the view that the new millennium begins Jan. 1, 2001, will never convince those who plan to celebrate a year earlier. 221 Boussin, Andre. Debut du siecle prochain. L'Intermediaire des chercheurs et curieux, no 466, mars 1990: columns 214-215. AG309.I64, 1990 Quotes a helpful explanation published in the Jan. 2, 1990, issue of Le Monde (see entry 219). 222 Kemble, Lucian J. Premature millennialism. Natural history, Dec. 1990: 4-5. QH1.N13, 1990 Letter to the editor calling attention to "a common misunderstanding about the turn of the millennium" expressed in an editorial, "Natural History at 90," by Alan Ternes, in the May 1990 issue, p. 6. 223 Whitney, Craig R. Londoners can't wait for the year 2000. New York times, v. 140, Dec. 31, 1990: 3. N&CPR Reports that the Savoy is already overbooked for the night of Dec. 31, 1999, by persons wishing to celebrate the arrival of the third millennium, and adds that "some will argue that all these people have got the date wrong. The first year of the new century (and, therefore, of the millennium) begins on Jan. 1, 2001, not a year earlier, these pedants will point out." The chairman of the Arts Council, Lord Palumbo, is quoted as observing that "the nice thing about it is that you can just have a celebration both years." 224 Trachet, Tim. Begint de 21e eeuw in het jaar 2000? Zenit, 18. jaarg., jan. 1991: 14-17. illus. DN-Ob Points out that the 21st century will begin when 20 centuries, or 2000 years, have passed. 225 Need, Richard. The new millennium. Times (London), Jan. 31, 1991: 13. N&CPR Letter to the editor. Protests the application, in a recent article, of the term "pedants" to those "who realise that the century and millennium do not end until December 31, 2000." 226 Hutton, Harry. The new millennium. Times (London), Feb. 4, 1991: 11. N&CPR Quotes with approval the comment made by Father Alexander R. Vidler in his autobiography, Scenes From a Clerical Life: "I prefer the opinion that a century ends when its enumeration departs from the calendar." Somehow this suggests that 1899 is the last year of the 18th century. 227 Blackman, David. The new millennium. Times (London), Feb. 6, 1991: 13. N&CPR Letter to the editor. Disputes the assertion made by Richard Need (see entry 225), stating that "Common sense suggests that the first millennium began on the first of January, AD 0 ..." 228 Martin, John F. The new millennium. Times (London), Feb. 7, 1991: 11. N&CPR Letter to the editor. In an optimistic attempt to settle the dispute, quotes an editorial from the Times of Jan. 1, 1900: "The New Year, the last of the Nineteenth Century, which begins today ..." 229 Middleton, Fred C. The new millennium. Times (London), Feb. 9, 1991: 11. N&CPR Letter to the editor. Calls attention to the flaw in Blackman's argument (see entry 227), namely, that there was never a year AD 0. 230 Don't be late for the party. Times (London), Apr. 2, 1991: 10. N&CPR "The world has voted with its cheque book in the debate on precisely when the millennium ends. While pedants continue to pit December 31, 1999, against the end of the year 2000, everyone who is anyone, it seems, has opted for the earlier date as the time to organise what they hope will be the mother of all parties." Goes on to report that a hotel, the construction of which had not yet begun, was already fully booked for that date, and points out that flying Concorde westward would enable revelers to ring in the New Year in several widely separated cities. 231 Counting the years. Time, special issue, fall 1992: 8. AP2.T37, 1992 A short note on chronology, dismissing those who know how to count as "purists" and claiming that "very few of the world's citizens will wait for Jan. 1, 2001, to mark the millennium's beginning." 232 Smilowe, Jill. The great event: tonight we're gonna party like it's 1999. You won't need an excuse to celebrate the greatest New Year's eve of all. But you might need a reservation--now. Time, special issue, Fall 1992: 10-11. col. illus. AP2.T37, 1992 "Reported by Wendy Cole/New York and Dan Cray/Los Angeles." On the many plans for celebrating the start of the last year of the 20th century, under the misapprehension that it will be the first year of the third millennium. Top of Page

Index

The numbers refer to entries, not pages. ***, M., bachelier en theologie, 4-5, 10 A., M. S. F., 32 A. A. S., 142 A. C., 130 A. C. C., 139 A. D., 49 A. G., 138, 165 A. K. S., 134 A. R., 32 Abicht, Johann G., 16 Academie francaise, Paris, 1 Agnew, Andrew N., 129 Ahrens, Wilhelm E. M. G., 183 Albert, Consort of Queen Victoria, 102 Alden, Edward, 80 Anding, Ernst, 194 Un Anticritique malgre luy, 6 Astronomer Royal. See Christie, Sir William H. M.; Maskelyne, Nevil Attfield, John, 129 B., G. F. R., 59 B., Geo., 129, 132 B., P. H., 129 B. S., 29, 32 Bagelaar, Jan, 17 Barkworth, Harold B., 130 Baumgartel, Gustav, 106, 184-185 Becker, Peter, 3 Bennett, F., 153 Bergold, E., 160 Beta, 164 Bl., Dr., 198 Blackman, David, 227, 229 Blanc, Jean-Marc, 204 Bloskins, Mr., 142 Bode, Johann Elert, 159 Bolyai, Farkas, 159 Book of common prayer, 71 Boulay, L. A., 105 Boussin, Andre, 221 Boyle, Sir Courtenay, 98, 103, 130, 137-138 Bright, Charles, 132, 139 Buchanan, J. Y., 103 Burja, Abel, 33 Bureau des longitudes. See France. Bureau des longitudes Busch, J. G., tr., 41 C., A., 130 C., A. C., 139 C., D., 32 C., J. B., 129 C., R., 32, 50 C. F. N., 130 C. N., 30-32 C. R. K., 139 C. Sh., 31-32 Campbell, Steuart, 220 Camus, J., 58 Canadian Pacific Railway Company, ocean steamships, 181 Cantzlaar, Jan, 34, 41-42 Carter, Robert E., 145, 150 Cartoons, 105, 140, 164, 195, 216 Carulla, F. J. R., 138 Centre national d'art et de culture Georges Pompidou, 210 Cercignani, Emilio, 107 Charlemagne, 176 Christie, Sir William H. M., 138 Church of England. Book of common prayer, 71 Cole, Alan S., 138 Cole, Wendy, 232 Colney Hatch, 73 Columbian Centinel, 182 Common, Andrew A., 137 Concorde (jet transports), 230 Connecticut Courant, 157, 182 A Constant reader, 28 Cordatus, Sincerus, 25 Craven, M. L., 134, 139 Cray, Dan, 232 Crow, William, of Stratford, 108 Cutshort, 53 d., 149 D., 38 D., A., 49 D., M...., avocat en Parlement, 12 D. C., 32 Darragon, Francois L., 43 Davis, Capt. Charles H., Jr., 146 Dawson, Rankine, 129 Day, W., 129 Delaisement, M., 4-5, 10, 15 Delpech, Jean, marquis de Mereville, 1 Dent, Hastings C., 134 De Willowby, 38 Dictionary definitions, 84, 172, 219 Dimbleby, J. B., 129 Dionysius Exiguus, 153, 160 Dionysius Maximus, pseud., 103, 132, 137 Dionysius Minimus, pseud., 134, 167 Doggett, LeRoy E., 203 Dunraven, Windham Thomas Wyndham-Quin, 4th Earl of, 130 Dwight, Timothy, 55 E. M., 58, 129 Ebeling, Herman L., 79 Edmunds, James, 130, 158 Emperor, German. See Wilhelm II, German emperor Equilibrium, pseud., 65 Evans, John W., 181 Ewing, Neal H., 78 F., H. B., 147 F. F. O. D. O. I., 20 A Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, 99, 135 Ferguson, K. B., 130 Fievez, Charles, 189 Fivescore, 53 Flammarion, Camille, 87, 169, 197 Foerster, Wilhelm J., 63, 66, 112, 148, 173, 190 Fox, Charles James, 129 France. Bureau des longitudes, 138, 151, 155 Franklin, F. G., 157 Freburger, William J., 208 Fulmer, Dina, 213 G., 134 G., A., 138, 165 G., N., 28-30 G., R., 139 G. F. R. B., 59 G. W., 31 Gauss, Karl Friedrich, 159 Gelder, Jacob de, 44 Genitron, 210 Un Gentil-homme de province, 9 Georges, F., 209 German emperor. See Wilhelm II, German emperor Gillis, Donald, 97 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 61, 120, 144, 152 Gordon, W. J., 130 Graf, Johann H., 111 Great Pyramid (Egypt), 206, 211 Gregory, 132 Griffith, George, 191 Grimley, H. N., 130 H., L. E., 130 H., P., 39 H. B. F., 147 H. B. P., 129 H. W. S.-W., 138 Hagedorn, Ann, 211 Halma, Francois, 17-19 Hamel, Jurgen, 217 Hammer, Alma M., tr., 200 Haydon, Henry, 129 Heiland, Fritz, 200 Heine, Heinrich, 144 Henne am Rhyn, Otto, 184 Herschel, Sir William, 30, 47 Hindenburg, Karl F., 45, 159 Hirsch, Gideon M., 89, 112 Hobhouse, Sir Arthur Hobhouse, 1st Baron, 174 Hodgkin, John, 139 Hoffmann, Volkmar, 173, 175 Hogan, J. F., 129 Holcroft, Thomas, 59 Hugo, Victor Marie, comte, 61 Hutchinson, John, 71 Hutton, Harry, 226 Ito-dre-casa, 113 J., N., 32 J. B. C., 129 Jens, Petrus, 19 Juni, Ulrich, 7-8 K., C. R., 139 Keiler, Arthur I., 195 Kellogg, Peter C., 150 Kemble, Lucian J., 222 Kewitsch, Georg, 76, 127, 160, 188, 192 Kirwan, Charles de, 155 Koppe, Max, 121 Kulikov, G. S., 212 L., L. Y., 130 L. E. H., 130 L. T. L., 130 Lalande, Joseph Jerome Le Francais de, 43, 47, 50, 136 Lalende. See Lalande, Joseph Jerome Le Francais de Lancaster, Albert B. M., 193 Lardner, Dionysius, 54 Leight, Warren D., 207 Le Lorrain de Vallemont, abbe Pierre, 1 Leo XIII, Pope, 95, 180 Leser, Eugene, 152 Library of Congress, 201 Loch, John W., 139 Lodge, Sir Oliver J., 101, 143 Lofft, Capel, 51 Ludolf, Hiob, the younger, 21 Lycett, Andrew, 214 Lynn, William T., 156 M., E., 58, 129 M. S. F. A., 32 McCormack, Thomas J., 123 McDonald, George E., 83 Mackay, Andrew, 47 M'Knight, D. A., 105 Malachi, pseud., 102 Malden, H. E., 129 Mallemans de Messanges, Claude, 11 Marlay, C. Brinsley, 138 Martin, John F., 228 Maskelyne, Nevil, 30, 47 May, Phil, 140, 216 Maycock, Willoughby, 130 Medal, 41 Medway, 134 Middleton, Fred C., 229 Minton-Senhouse, Robert M., 137 Monnich, Bernhard F., 35 Moller, Daniel W., 26 Music, 37 N., 36 N., C., 30-32 N., C. F., 130 N. G., 28-30 N. J., 32 Need, Richard, 225, 227 New York City, celebrations on Dec. 31, 1900, 187, 196 Nispen, C. van, 22 Nispen, M. van, 18 O., R., 32 Omicron, 32 Only a layman, 134 Orme, Albert, 143 Owen, Arthur S., 101 P., H. B., 129 P., P. P. R., 46 P. H., 39 P. H. B., 129 P. P. R. P., 46 Palumbo, Peter Garth Palumbo, Baron, 223 Parmentier, Theodore, 169 Payne, William M., 152 Peckham, G. L., 105 Pierpoint, Robert, 138 Pietzker, Friedrich, 64, 123 Porro, Francesco, 114 Prince Consort, 102 Professor of Calculation and Chronology, 73 Pullen, H. W., 129 Pye, Henry J., 49, 52 Pythagoras, pseud., 32 Quinn, Jim, 201 R., A., 32 R., R. E., 32 R. C., 32, 50 R. E. R., 32 R. G., 139 R. G. T., 137 R. O., 32 R. W., 32 Rabus, Petrus, 23 Rajna, Michele, 68 Rebeyrol, Yvonne, 219 Reductio ad Absurdum, 103 Reed, E. J., 129 Resol, A., 56 Richardson, Joseph, 129 Rickover, Hyman G., 209 Ridgway, Dick, 205 Ritchie, John, 125 Roberts, Chalmers M., 218 Rondelli, Geminiano, 24 S., A. A., 142 S., A. K., 134 S., B., 29, 32 S.P.Q.R., 137 S.-W., H. W., 138 Saint-Saens, Camille, 126 Sargeaunt, John, 130 Saunders, T. Bailey, 134 Scaletti, Carlo C., 20 Scaliger, pseud., 103 Schiller, Friedrich, 120, 144, 152 Schmid-Dresden, Otto, 37 A School boy, 38 Schram, Robert, 94 Schubring, Gustav, 115 Schurig, Richard, 86 Schwab, Gustav, 179 Schwartz, Hillel, 216 Scocchera, A., 69 A Secretary, 130 Sempronio, 77 Sh., C., 31-32 Sharpe, J. W., 129 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 129 Smilowe, Jill, 232 Smith, Charles W., 214 Southey, Robert, 124 Stanley, William F., 135, 147, 154 Steiner, Rudolf, 89 Stephen, Herbert, 103, 132 Steward, Edward, 129 Straker, F. A., 139 Sullivan, Steve, 214 Sykes, Arthur A., 129 T., R. G., 137 Tenbyten, 136 Tennant, John, 101 Ternes, Alan P., 222 Tille, Alexander, 177 Tizio, 77 Trachet, Tim, 224 Turner, G. J., 132 24 Geo. II., c. 23 (Act of Parliament), 71, 166 Ule, Willi, 168 U.S. Library of Congress, 201 U.S. Naval Observatory, 146, 203 Van Patten, E. H., 85 Verepius, pseud., 61 Vidler, Alexander R., 226 Vince, C. A., 132 W., G., 31 W., R., 32 Waite, C. B., 84 Walford, E., 57, 60 Waller, Berkeley C., 105 Weigel, Erhard, 2, 7 Werner, 33 Werther, 33 West, George E., 81 Westley, Thomas, 129 White, Bill, 209 White, Horatio S., 144 Whitmell, Charles T., 116 Whitney, Craig R., 223 Wilhelm II, German emperor, 88, 92, 95-96, 101, 128, 154, 165 Wilson, Henry, 138 Winterich, John T., 199 Winterwood, Geoffrey, 170 Wolff, Christian, Freiherr von, 159 Wood, Charles H., 105 World Millennium Ball, 205, 211 Yanney, Benjamin F., 85 Young, T. E., 139 Zedwhyeks, 73 Zeno, pseud., 138 Zero year, 36, 64, 86-87, 102, 123, 127, 135, 141, 153, 158, 168, 184-185, 192, 214, 227, 229