The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed
The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions
Holds that motivation is a function of fairness in social exchanges
Comparison in which another person receives greater outcomes for similar inputs
Comparison in which another person receives lesser outcomes for similar inputs
An individual's tolerance for negative and positive equity
Extent to which people feel fairly treated when procedures are implemented
Vroom's Expectancy Theory
Holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce valued outcomes.
Motivation boils down to the decision of how much effort to exert in a specific task situation.
Belief that efforts lead to a specific level of performance
A performance -> outcome perception
The value of a reward or outcome
What an individual is trying to accomplish
Management system incorporating participation in decision making, goal setting and feedback.
The amount of effort required to meet a goal
Quantifiability of a goal
Amount of commitment to achieving a goal
Adam's Equity Theory of Motivation
Is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges. Central is an awareness of key components of
individual - organization exchange relationships.
People who have a higher tolerance for negative inequity.
prefer their outcome/input ratio to be lower than ratios from comparison others
Adhere to a strict norm of reciprocity and quickly motivated to resolve negative and positive inequity
Have no tolerance for negative inequity.
expect to obtain greater output/input ratios than comparison others and become upset when this is not the case.
Change outcomes or alter inputs; e.g a raise; or work less hours. Can be cognitive or behavioral.
Practical Lessons from Equity Theory (2/9)
Employees more likely to accept & support org chg when believed implemented fairly and when it produces equitable outcomes. Mgrs can promote cooperation & teamwork among group members by treating them equitably.
Practical Lessons from Equity Theory (4/9)
• Treating employees inequitably can lead to litigation and costly court settlements.
Employees’ perceptions of justice are strongly influenced by the leadership behavior exhibited by their managers
Practical Lessons from Equity Theory (6/9)
Managers should pay attention to the organization’s climate for justice
Factors that Influence Expectancy Perceptions
- Self-esteem
- Self-efficacy
Previous success at the task. - Help received from others.
Information necessary to complete the task - Good materials and equipment to work with
Vroom's
Expectancy Theory
Instrumentality: A performance outcome perception; the fact/function of serving some purpose. Valence: The value of a reward or outcome; Outcomes: refer to different consequ. that are contingent on performance.
Implications for mgrs and orgs for expectancy
Implications
for managers and for organizations related to expectancy
• Goals direct attention
• Goals regulate effort
• Goals increase persistence
• Goals foster the development and application of task strategies and action plans
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results oriented, Time-Bound
two or more freely interacting people with shared norms and goals and a common identity
formed by the organization working together toward some common goal.
formed by friends
group of people casually acquainted with each other for their own personal fulfillment because they have some common characteristics and concerns (interests/hobbies/friendship).
Formal Groups and role in org and individuals
Tuckman's 5-Stage Theory of Development
Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Adjourning
Group members tend to be uncertain and anxious about their roles, the people in charge and the group’s goals
• Mutual trust is low
• Time of testing
• Individuals try to determine how they fit into the power
structure
• Procrastination may occur
Questions about authority and power are resolved through unemotional, matter-of-fact group discussion
• Group cohesiveness
- a “we feeling” binding group members together
• Activity focused on solving task problems
• Climate of open communication, strong cooperation, and lots of helping behavior
• Work is done
• Time to move on to other things
Roles
- expected behaviors for a given position
task-oriented group behavior - Keep the group on track
relationship-building group behavior - Keep the group together
Task and Maintenance Roles
shared attitudes, opinions, feelings, or actions that guide social behavior
rejection by other group member
exclusion by general consent and from social acceptance
Explicit statements by supervisors or co-workers
- Critical events in the group’s history
Primacy (the state of being first in order, rank, importance)
Carryover behaviors past situations
• Help the group or organization survive
• Clarify or simplify behavioral expectations
• Help individuals avoid embarrassing situations
• Clarify the group’s or organization’s central values and/or unique identity
- small group with complementary skills who hold themselves mutually accountable for common purpose, goals, and approach.
- Task groups that have matured to the performing stage
A group becomes a team when:
1.Leadership becomes a shared activity
2.Accountability shifts from strictly individual to both individual and collective
3.The group develops its own purpose or mission
4.Problem solving becomes a way of life, not a part-time activity
experiential learning aimed at better internal functioning of groups
reciprocal faith in other’ intentions and behavior.
• Overall trust: expecting fair play, the truth, & empathy
• Reliableness: believing that promises & appts. will be kept & commitments met
• Emotional trust: having faith that s/o will not misrepresent u to others or betray u
1. Communication
2. Support
3. Respect
4. Fairness
5. Predictability 6. Competence
- groups of employees granted administrative oversight for their work
team made up of technical specialists from different areas
Effectiveness of Self-Managed Teams
Have a positive effect on productivity
Have a positive effect on specific attitudes relating to self-
management
No significant effect on general attitudes
No significant effect on absenteeism
or turnover
allows group members in different locations using information technology to conduct business.
- Janis’s term for cohesive in-group’s unwillingness to realistically view alternatives.
decrease in individual effort as group size increases. Reasons include:
• Equity of effort
• Loss of personal
accountability
• Motivational loss due to sharing of rewards
• Coordination loss as more people perform the task
Major Trends That Make Conflict Inevitable
• Constant change
• Greater employee diversity
• More teams (virtual and self-managed)
• Less face-to-face communication
• Global economy with increased
cross-cultural dealings
process in which one party perceives its interests are being opposed or set back by another party
- serves organization’s interests.
• Airing existing problems
• Releasing stress
- threatens organization’s interests.
- Can hinder group/organization success
• Incompatible personalities/ value systems. Overlapping/unclear job boundaries.
• Competition for limited resources Interdept/intergroup competition.
• Inad. communication. Interdependent tasks. Org'll complexity
• unclear policies, standards/rules. • Unreasonable deadlines/extreme time pressure.
• Collective decision making
• Decision making by consensus.
• Unmet expectations.
•
Unresolved or suppressed conflict.
Why people avoid Conflict
• Harm
• Rejection
• Loss of relationship
• Anger
• Being seen as selfish
• Saying the wrong thing • Intimacy
Desired Outcomes of Conflict
1. Agreement
2. Stronger relationships
3. Learning
- interpersonal opposition driven by personal dislike or disagreement.
- conflict among work groups, teams, and departments
• Too much cohesiveness can breed groupthink because a desire to get along pushes aside critical thinking
- the more the members of different groups interact, the less
intergroup conflict they will experience
• Managers should identify and root out specific negative linkages between groups
How to Build Cross Cultrual Relationships
Programmed Functional Conflict
encourages different opinions without protecting management’s personal feelings.
- assigning someone the role of critic.
fostering a debate of opposing viewpoints to better understand an issue.
5 Conflict Handling Styles
Handling Dysfunctional Conflict-
Integrating
- interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify the problem, generate and weigh alternative solutions, and select a solution
• Appropriate for complex issues plagued by misunderstanding
- involves playing down differences while emphasizing
commonalities
• Appropriate when it is possible to get something in return
- relies on formal authority to force compliance
• Appropriate when an unpopular solution must be implemented
- involves either passive withdrawal from the problem or
active suppression of the issue • Appropriate for trivial issues
- give-and-take approach involves moderate concern for both
self and others
• Appropriate
when parties have opposite goals
Alternative Dispute Resolution
- avoiding costly lawsuits by resolving conflicts informally or through mediation or arbitration
• Facilitation • Conciliation • Peer review • Ombudsman • Mediation
• Arbitration
- give-and-take process between conflicting independent
parties.
Two types:
- Distributive
- Integrative
- cooperatively developing multiple-deal packages while building a long-term relationship
Steps in Added-Value Negotiation
Clarify interests
Identify options
Design alternative deal packages
Select a deal
Perfect the deal
Know the market rate
Consider the economy
Know your own value
Be honest
Don’t go first
Consider benefits, too
Look at the long term
Contrast roles and norms and specify four reasons why norms are enforced
Roles are specific to a person's position, norms are shared attitudes that differentiate appropriate from inappropriate behavior in a variety of situations. Norms evolve informally and are enforced because they help the group or organization survive.
Work group becomes a team
leadership is shared, accountability is indiv. & collective, members have developed their own purpose, problem solving is way of life, and measured by collective outcomes.
Self-managed teams vs. virtual teams
Self managed teams are given administrative oversight whereas virtual teams are globally dispersed.