What is the political importance of the mass media?
-Media coverage can influence views of the citizens about political figures, policy, and parties and is often the only way we experience politics
-serves as attitude and behavior models
-I️t tells us what is important; what issues we should value
-who are the good guys and the bad guys
-Keys to importance: reaches millions easily and fast
What are the four different types of journalism?
-Hard news
-Soft news
-Advocacy journalism
-Entertainment journalism
What are the functions of the mass media; and the fourth function beyond these three suggestions?
-Surveillance: public and private
-Interpretation: Context "Frame"
-Socialization: Cultural norms
-Manipulation: + & -
What is the difference between private and public surveillance? Which do you think is more important?
Public surveillance: Serves the collective
Private surveillance: Serves the individual consumer— what we want and need in terms of information
Why does the interpretation of the events meaning by the media matter so much?
-There is an assumption that institutions that control the public's information supply can shape public knowledge and behavior and thereby determine support for government or opposition to I️t.
Can socialization by the media be direct and indirect? If so, how does this work?
-Yes
-Media presents specific facts as well as general values
Why are politicians generally concerned about influencing what the media tells the public?
-Because they supply information that can shape public knowledge and behavior
-Fastest way to get message out to the general public
Compare and contrast media control under an authoritarian versus a democratic regime?
*Authoritarian: Support ideals of a
particular ideology such as communism in Cuba and China or a religious theocracy
- control media output tightly so that I️t does not interfere with their conduct of Government.
-Key point: full or partial authoritarianism systems of media control prevail in a majority of countries
*Democratic: Free press viewed as a critical component of a 'true' democracy
-government often critical of press
-trust in media is low
-Libertarian view: anything that is news should be reported accurately if of interest to the public— No dominant point of view, Just the facts; Freedom to choose what to consume; Freedom to communicate what media wishes
-Social responsibility view: news and entertainment provided by mass media should reflect social concerns; media is a participant in the political process, and guardians of I️t.
Break down the different models of news making. Make sure you can discriminate among them.
1. Mirror Model: A reflection of reality; "We don't make the news we just report I️t"
2. Professional Model: Produced by highly skilled professionals; for economic reasons, audience reaction influences which stories pass scrutiny and which are ignored; "economic model of news"
3. Organizational Model: Pressures inherent in organizational processes and goals determine which items will be published; Pressures spring from interpersonal relations among journalist and between them and their information sources; "Bargaining model"
4. Political Model: Idea that news everywhere reflects the ideological biases of individual newspeople as well as the pressures of the political environment in which the news organization operates; Supporters of the prevailing system are pictured as good guys and opponents as bad guys;
5. Civic Journalism Model: Idea of integrating journalism into the democratic process; attempt to abandon the notion that journalist and their audiences are spectators in political and social processes; want to help audiences play an active and successful role in public life
What are the means by which societies use to control the news media? List and provide an example for each.
1. Legal mean: Laws regarding press behavior
2. Normative mean: social norms; what is ok
3. Structural mean: where does I️t operate; resources and foundations
4. Economic mean: what makes money
Chapter 2
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What is the difference between ownership by the public, semipublic and private organizations?
*Public: Staffed by political appointees
-federal government controls foreign media
-relays U.S. government policy
-Private
foundations and big businesses subsidize 25% of public broadcasting
*Semi-Public: created by PBS in 1967
-mix of public and private financing, programming, and operations of radio and T.V.
What business configurations exists for private media ownership in the U.S.? Describe each.
-Independent: individuals, families, or corporations that own a single media outlet (rare)
-Multiple ownership: Media chains (most common) published less often
-Cross Media ownership: Media corporations owning multiple types of media dimensions
-Conglomerate: Independent and corporations that own multiple media enterprises along with other types of business
What are the pros and cons of big business control of most of the media in America according to Graber and Dunaway?
Pros:
-only large organizations are
able to spread their cost over many customers and can provide lavish media
-large enterprises can absorb losses
-more money for workers, research, etc..
Cons:
-"infotainment"—mergers of new enterprises with entertainment giants (especially when public prefers shows to hard news)
-Shape profit orientations, agenda set, and amount of hard news offered
What are the consequences of new media on the media marketplace?
-Media fragmentation—>nearly as many providers as there are consumers; imbalance between supply and demand
-very few original stories—>feed off news from traditional media
-Sharpening competition—less profitable or unprofitable in owning media
What is meant by multiplication of outlets that distribute news? Is there an imbalance of supply and demand? Competition? What else?
-Media fragmentation—nearly as many providers as consumers
-Yes, imbalance—suppliers compete for audiences in novel ways
-Competition=owning media; down in profits
-Thinned out traditional media, but only marginally
What might we consider when trying to assess the potential influence of a media outlet? What factors might make I️t more influential?
-Prestige, Market-size, and Competition
-Prestige:
political influence
-age of viewers
-demographic difference *young mid 20s to mid 30s are most prized
What are the primary dimensions of debate regarding regulation versus deregulation of the media?
-Proponents of Deregulation:
-should loosen rules because advancement in technology has multiplied available channels
-companies could improve their offerings to consumers
-could better
compete with unregulated cable and satellite television and the internet
-Opponents to Deregulation:
-Large conglomerates already own most popular stations / controversial to the governments communications diversity goals
-believes it encourages replacing local programming with bland generic coverage suitable for large, diverse markets
-giant corporations taking over and dominating the industry
Chapter 3
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What is the legal basis for press freedom in the U.S.? Why is freedom of the press important?
-Amendment 1 of the Constitution.
-Because freedom of expression is the "bedrock" of a free society. No free society without free expression. Knowledge of truth is freedom.
Which of our media are least controlled/"uncontrolled media" and why?
-Print media
-protected by the press clause of the First Amendment
-treated as if they were common carriers (as the telephone)
What does Graber mean by "common carrier" and which media are considered to be described as these?
-"Channels that carry information compiled by others rather than originating their own information"—the transport of other peoples messages
-print media, cable television, and Internet
What 4 forms does the FCC use to control the media?
1. Rules limiting the number of stations owned or controlled by a single organization
2. Examination of the goals and performance of stations as part of PERIODIC LICENSING
3. Rules mandating pubic service and local interest programs
4. Rules to protect individuals from damage caused by unfair media coverage
-"Designed to increase the chances that content would be diverse and of civic importance"
Which U.S. Supreme Court case defined print press rights which are that basically private citizens may request that a story or response to a personal attack be printed and that request may be granted, but they have no right to demand publication.
-Miami Herald Publishing Company v. Tornillo
-The issue at hand involved the constitutionality of a Florida statute that gave public office candidates the right to immediately reply if and when they are personally attacked by a newspaper.
-The rebuttal had to match the format of the original attack, and I️t had to be placed in an equally prominent spot in the newspaper.
-The Law was passed to deal with the problem or personal attacks published very late in the campaign, giving candidates little time to respond.
Which of our media are considered "Controlled media"? And why are the rules different for them?
-Broadcast Media: limited channel space makes them semi-monopolies (newspapers potentially infinite, as is cable and internet carrier space)
-Requires a license form the government for privilege of broadcasting over the public airwaves
-Right to equal time
-equal opportunity provision: requires radio and television stations and cable systems which originate their own programming to treat legally qualified political candidates equally when I️t comes to selling or giving away air time.
Now that technology has expanded channel space beyond what was originally available on the radio spectrum, what have members of Congress and many broadcasters and even scholars suggested in terms of regulation?
-They urge the importance of ending differential treatment of broadcast media based on the assumption of broadcast channel scarcity.
-Moreover, distinctions between print and broadcast media are becoming increasingly blurred because many print media now broadcast their messages on websites. Hence, when making publishing decisions, all media types should be free from government interference.
What is the right to equal time? Can a broadcast station sell time to one candidate but not sell I️t to others? If I️t wishes, can I️t deny time to all candidates? If someone has a candidate on their news program, does another candidate have the right to demand to appear on the show? (All or none equal time rule)
-Right to equal time: If a station gives or sells time during an election campaign to one candidate for a specific office, I️t must make the same opportunity available to all candidates for that office, including those with few backers.
-They do have the right to deny time to all candidates
-A candidate does not have the right to demand time on a news program and specifically talk shows
Does the FCC exempt debates from the equal time rule today? Why do they do so?
-Yes
-To make I️t possible to stage lengthy debates among mainline candidates for major offices without running afoul of the equal time provisions, the FCC exempted debates from the equal time rules in 1983.
-The exemption allows radio and television broadcasters to stage political debates at all political levels among a limited array of candidates chosen in a non-discriminatory way.
What is the fairness doctrine? What are its dimensions? How does I️t capture the right to equal treatment and the right to rebuttal?
-Irony of use of fairness doctrines right of rebuttal created a chilling effect as stations dropped the Christian Crusade (part of a DNC campaign) and the end result was the elimination later of the fairness doctrine which many liberals supported. Emergence of fair more conservative talk shows on both television and radio when there was no fairness doctrine.
-I️t mandates free airtime for the expression of issues of public concern and of opposing views whenever discussion of highly controversial public issues air.
-The fairness doctrine is not limited to political office and has a broader reach than the equal time provision.
Is access to the airways fairly limited as well to individuals? In other words, do individuals have the right to demand a show be aired or that a pay per view football game be free? What about public officials? Can they demand coverage of a speech?
-The public lacks any legal right to compel the publication of information that is readily available.
-When public television in Alabama canceled the film Death of a Princess in response to protest by Saudi Arabia's royal family and threats to economic boycott, a group of citizens charged unfair denial of their right of access to information. The federal district court disagreed.
-The station, not the public,, had the right to decide what to feature and what to reject.
-Public officials face problems similar to private individuals
Has the FCC ever responded to certain groups with regard to access rights to the airwaves? Children? Hispanics? African-Americans?
-The FCC had further protected the interest of these groups by giving preference in license applications to stations whose programs are likely to serve neglected clienteles.
-Had been the case, but after a 1981 ruling, the Supreme Court freed the FCC from any obligation to weigh the effects of alternative program formats on different population groups when making licensing decisions.
Must a newspaper print your letter to the editor? Must they accept the advertisement of any company or group?
-No; Editors select the letters and op-ed essays to be published, using a variety of criteria that disadvantage average people.
-No; they can refuse to publish advertisement or sell airtime.
Just because a story makes I️t on the internet, what are the odds I️t will be heard?
-This goes to the argument that even though the internet does provide a means for everyone theoretically to make their case, I️t does not guarantee anyone will listen. Graber cites studies of cable usage that suggest that given hundreds of channels to choose from, the average viewer uses only 6
Why is access to information sources by the public and journalist an important issue?
-Journalist and public have similar access to information; no special rights, but by custom journalist often receive preferred treatment in gaining access to public events for better observation at the discretion of the authorities.
-Absence of special access rights to the media by journalists and the public can deprive the general pubic of important information
What about access to government documents? (FOIA 1966) (Open government Act of 2007) How are they limited? What have been the short comings of the act?(abuse)
-Government documents are off limits to the public and media
-The Freedom of Information Act: federal freedom of information law that allows for the full or partial disclosure of previously unreleased information and documents controlled by the United States government.
-Open Government Act: It strengthens public disclosure requirements concerning lobbying activity and funding, places more restrictions on gifts for members of Congress and their staff, and provides for mandatory disclosure of earmarks in expenditure bills
-Short comings: Advocates for transparency worry that without aggressive Congressional oversight and a willingness to punish agencies' noncompliance, FOIA ineffectiveness will linger
What are the general rules in terms of access to government documents?
-Disclosure must be in the public interest and must not do excessive harm. Access should be denied if the harm caused by opening records is greater than the likely benefit.
Why is access to the official and private records of major public officials also limited? (25 years after death) Privacy protection to individuals.
-These records are usually unavailable to the media and public until 25 years after the public officials death. The lengthy limit was selected to spare possible embarrassment to people in the officials public and private network
What about access to government documents? National security and security censorship?
-The government often seeks to censor the publication of information they deem harmful to national security, such as in the famous case of the pentagon papers.
Daniel Ellsberg and the Pentagon Papers—what was the Controversy? What was the result in the court case New York Times v. United States (1971)? Are security issues still controversial? What about the messages of Osama bin Laden?
-Daniel Ellsberg believed the pentagon papers were classified improperly as top secret. He copied the information and gave it to a prominent newspapers for publication. He hoped this would turn people against the war, he was sued along with the media that printed the information.
-The Supreme Court ruled that the government had been overcautious in classifying the information as top secret
-Yes, security issues are still very controversial, and should only be released if it presents no harm to national security or the general public.
What is Executive privilege and why is I️t important?
-The right of Chief Executives to conceal information that they consider sensitive; This privilege extends to all of their communications with their staffs.
-it is important because disclosure could harm the executive agency or its key personnel.
Are the documents of private industries available to the public generally and the press? What does the FOIA cover in relation to these entities?
-Most of these documents are held from the public and the press on the grounds that business cannot thrive if its operational data are made available to its competitors
-The FOIA does not cover unpublished records of private businesses, except for their reports to the government about sales, inventory figures or customer lists.
What are the differences between the privacy rights of ordinary citizens versus those of public officials and public figures?
-Private individuals enjoy broad, though shrinking, protections from publicity; public officials and people who have become public figures because many people are interested in their lives do not enjoy such protections.
-State and federal courts have permitted the news media to cover the details about the personal affairs of people when the information is based on public records
-The Supreme Court ruled that if it is a matter of public record it can be published
What about limitations of coverage of the accused? How strong is this protection? Has I️t been weakening?
-The courts used to passionate about guarding the right of accused persons to be protected against publicity that might influence the judge and jury and harm their cases.
-Scientific evidence concludes that media publicity still influences parties when making decisions
-The stern posture of the courts in censoring pretrial publicity is weakening
What is a gag order? Why are they sometimes controversial?
-Order by a judge that a case may not be discussed in public
-Controversial because they interfere with the media's ability to report on the fairness of judicial proceedings
What are shield laws and why are they important to journalist? When are they not upheld?
-Laws that shield journalists from subpoenas forcing them to break their pledge of confidentiality. Important to journalists because they don't want other sources to feel like they may betray them.
-When the right of reporters to withhold the names of their sources clashes with the right of other individuals to conduct a lawsuit involving criminal offenses, state shield laws and common law protections must yield.
What do libel laws do? What Court case had an important effect on journalists ability to conduct investigative reporting without fear of libel suits? What must be proven now by the plaintiffs?
-Libel laws provide redress when published information has unjustly tarnished a persons reputation.
-New York Times v. Sullivan
-A plaintiff who claims libel must be able to show that the libelous information brought against them was published "with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not" (Sullivan rule)
What did the Gertz decision do? How is I️t related to libel issues?
-It narrowed the "public figure" category; the Court held that a person who had not deliberately sought publicity would be deemed a public only in exceptional cases.
-Therefor a prominent lawyer whose name had been widely reported in the news was not a public figure and could sue for libel.
What about libel and the internet? How are providers protected from these issues?
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What are some other restrictions on publication? In other words, what types of censorship are allowed to exist in the U.S.?
National security involving internal dangers—subversive groups and civil disturbances; Patriot Act; could include media portrayals of asocial/antisocial behavior that could be imitated—crime/violence on television that could influence children
-National security involving external dangers
-Obscenity—indecent materials; corruption
How does the FCC define indecent material?
-Certain types of ads—cigarette smoking (liquor, sugared cereal....)
-Hate broadcast—gray area—hate on the web?
-FCC definition: "material that depicts or describes, in terms patently offensive by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium, sexual or excretory activities or organs."
Ch. 4
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What is the most significant change in the modern media environment?
-The dramatic expansion of content choice.
What is the effect of changes in the media environment, primarily the Internet, on political knowledge? Does more choice necessarily equate to more knowledge?
-The end result for political knowledge is that with more content choices comes a widening gap in political knowledge between those who are interested in politics and those who are not.
-more choice does not equate to more knowledge in all circumstances
What competes with expanded political news on the internet? Why does this matter?
-The expanding number of outlets and distribution mechanisms are creating economic incentives for media organizations to isolate markets and provide special interest programming directed to a specific audience.
-citizens are allowing political beliefs to dictate their media choices, ignoring counter attitudinal messages which can be harmful.
What is incidental exposure to political news and why does it matter?
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Is learning from digital media easier or more difficult? What does research suggest? Does presentation matter?
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Look at figure 4.1 Which is the declining trend in News Platform use? Increased trend? Dominate source?
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Since we have far more news media outlets available, and distribution mechanisms such as cable and satellite and a multitude of new platforms—the end result is that we have moved from broad mass markets that compete(coke and Pepsi) to more isolated markets with special programming(craft beer). You still have the coke and Pepsi, but there is a market, often based on ideological tendencies. So what does the evidence suggest about whether these outlets (such as cable news) are indeed more polarized than traditional news outlets (the big 3 network news shows) for example?
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With all the diversity of news outlets, do people actually get their news from diverse sources or do they engage in selective exposure or partisan selective exposure?
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Do we gravitate to like minded information sources?
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What is partisan perceptual bias?
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How does the enormous volume of entertainment content available relate to the negative impact of partisan media?
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Explain how changes in the modern media landscape have altered news audience behaviors as well as the practice and profession of journalism? (Make sure to address media hybridity)
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How are social media and news related? Nature of the news across social and traditional news sources?
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What are several factors related to social media that make political learning opportunities different from traditional media? (Name the 2 most important at least)
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What are the implications of increased use of mobile devices for news consumption? Learning and Screens? Reach versus engagement? Politically interested consumers and non-interested consumers?
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You might see an essay like this on the test. You are a futurist, tell me what you think the trends and their consequences will be for our new media landscape and democratic politics?
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How do we see media hybridity in traditional journalists use of digital and social media in their reporting and sharing of news?
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What implications have emerged for campaign politics with the new media landscape?
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What impact has social media had on political campaigns? How much use of digital? How has it been used? And does it matter in terms of influencing voters?
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Does the new media environment help promote democracy and democratic values? Egalitarianism? Does it raise all voices so that they are actually heard?
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How effective is the new media landscape and its tools for mobilization and political organizing?
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Has the new media system contributed to political polarization? Why is this such a complicated answer?
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