PERIOD 1
Use the excerpt to answer the following questions.
"... [A]lthough disastrous for American natives, the post-1492 exchange of New and Old World microbes and plants provided a double boon to Europeans. First, they obtained an expanded food supply that permitted their reproduction at an unprecedented rate. Second, they acquired access to fertile and extensive new lands largely emptied of native peoples by the exported
diseases. In effect, the post-Columbian exchange depleted people on the Americans side of the Atlantic while swelling those on the European and African shores. Eventually, the surplus population flowed westward to refill the demographic vacuum created on the American side of the Atlantic world."
-Alan Taylor, American Colonies. The Settling of North America, 2001
It is important to remember that the "fertile and extensive new lands" that the Spanish, French, Dutch, and English colonized in
the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries had been "largely emptied of native peoples by the exported diseases,"
A) Most important historical events are caused by climatic and biological changes
B) The defeat of the native peoples of the Americas was due largely to their lack of knowledge
C) The native peoples failed to prosper despite the fertility of their extensive lands
D) European conquest of the native peoples was due primarily to the impact of disease.
PERIOD 2
"...if enslaving our fellow creatures be a practice agreeable to Christianity, it is answered in a great measure in many treatises at home, to which I refer you...
... we are all apt to shift off the blame from ourselves & lay it upon others, how justly in our case you may judge. The Negroes are enslaved by the Negroes themselves before they are purchased by the masters of the ships who bring them here. It is, to be sure, at our choice whether we buy them or not,
so this then is our crime, folly, or whatever you will please to call it."
-Peter Fontaine, "A Defense of Slavery in Virginia"
8. Based upon the excerpt, what was the justification for slavery in British North America?
Slavery was based upon principles of Christianity
Those to be sold into slavery are held as slaves in Africa first; therefore, slavery is a business transaction
Slavery was part of the "natural order" of the human races
According to English law, "inferior people"
were destined to serve as slaves
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-Indian villages claimed sovereignty over a certain territory, which their members collectively used for farming, fishing, hunting, and gathering.
-No Indian claimed individual ownership of a specific tract of land. Europeans, of course, did, and for them ownership conferred on an individual the exclusive right to use or sell a piece of land.
-These differences created problems whenever Indians transferred land to settlers.
-The settlers assumed that they had obtained complete rights to the land, whereas the Indians assumed that they had given the settlers not the land itself but only the right to use it.
The English understanding of what was meant by a land sale prevailed, however, enforced in the colonists' courts under the colonists' laws.
-Native American converts.
-Puritans frowned on the rituals and religious objects that drew Indians to Catholicism, but
Protestant practices, including lengthy sermons and Bible study, held little allure for Indians accustomed to a more ritualistic spiritual life.
-Even so, Protestant missionaries achieved some success, principally in New England.
-Beginning in the 1650s and 1660s, Puritan ministers such as John Eliot and Thomas Mayhew, Jr., attracted converts. Eliot helped to establish several "praying towns," where Indians received instruction in Protestant Christianity and English ways. By 1674, about 2,300 Indians resided in these towns.
-In the spring of 1675, a colonial court found three Wampanoags guilty of murdering a Christian Indian who had warned the English of Wampanoag preparations for war.
-Despite Philip's protest that the evidence against the men was tainted, the court sentenced them to be hanged. This act convinced the Wampanoags that they had to strike back against the English before it was too late.
-Native warriors attacked outlying villages in Plymouth Colony, moved into the Connecticut River Valley, and then turned eastward to strike towns within 20 miles of Boston.
-As the Narragansetts and other groups joined the uprising, Philip successfully eluded the combined forces of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth.
-By early 1676, however, the Indians were exhausted, weakened by disease and food shortages. Philip moved into western New England, where his men clashed with the powerful Mohawks, long-standing enemies of the Wampanoags and allies of English fur traders in New York.
-Philip died in an ambush in August 1676, and the war ended soon after.
-At least 1,000 colonists and perhaps 3,000 Indians died in King Philip's War. One out of every sixteen male colonists of military age was killed, making this the deadliest conflict in American history in terms of the proportion of casualties to total population.
-The Indians forced back the line of settlement but lost what remained of their independence in New England. Philip's head, impaled on a stake, was left for decades just outside Plymouth as a grisly warning of the price to be paid for resisting colonial expansion.
-Frustrated by shrinking economic opportunities in eastern Virginia, where established planters controlled the best land, many settlers, including new arrivals and recently freed indentured servants, moved to Virginia's western frontier. There they came into conflict with the region's resident Indians.
-In the summer of 1675, a group of frontier settlers attacked the Susquehannocks to seize their lands. The Indians struck back, prompting Nathaniel Bacon, a wealthy young planter who had only recently arrived in Virginia, to lead a violent campaign against all Indians, even those at peace with the colonial government.
-Governor William Berkeley ordered Bacon and his men to stop their attacks. They defied him and marched on Jamestown, turning a war between settlers and Indians into a rebellion of settlers against the colonial authorities.
-The rebels believed that Berkeley and the colonial government represented the interests of established tobacco planters who wanted to keep men like themselves from emerging as potential competitors.
-Desperate because of the low price of tobacco, the rebels demanded voting rights, lower taxes, and easier access to land—meaning, in effect, the right to take land from the Indians.
-Berkeley offered to build forts along the frontier, but the rebels were not interested in defensive measures. What they wanted was help in exterminating the Indians.
-They captured and burned the colonial capital at Jamestown, forcing Berkeley to flee. Directing their aggression against Indians once more, they burned Indian villages and massacred the inhabitants.
-By the time troops arrived from England to put down the rebellion, Bacon had died of dysentery and most of his men had drifted home.
-Berkeley hanged twenty-three rebels, but the real victims of the rebellion were Virginia's Indians.
-The remnants of the once-powerful Powhatans lost their remaining lands and either moved west or lived in poverty on the edges of English settlement. Hatred of Indians became a permanent feature of frontier life in Virginia, and government officials appeared more eager to spend money "for extirpating all Indians" than for maintaining peaceful relations.
-Nearly 20,000 Pueblo Indians had grown restless under the harsh rule of only 2,500 Spaniards.
-The spark that ignited the revolt was an act of religious persecution. Spanish officials unwisely chose this troubled time to stamp out the Pueblo religion.
-In 1675, the governor arrested forty-seven native religious leaders on charges of sorcery. The court ordered most of them to be publicly whipped and released but sentenced four to death.
-Led by Popé, one of the freed leaders, the outraged Pueblos organized for revenge.
-A growing network of rebels emerged as Spanish soldiers marched into Pueblo villages and destroyed kivas, the chambers that Indians used for religious ceremonies.
-Working from the village of Taos in northern New Mexico, by the summer of 1680, Popé commanded an enormous force of rebels drawn from twenty Pueblo villages.
-On August 10, they attacked the Spanish settlements. Popé urged them to destroy "everything pertaining to Christianity." By October, all the surviving Spaniards had fled New Mexico.
-They did not return for thirteen years. By then, internal rivalries had split the victorious Pueblo coalition, and Popé had been overthrown as leader.
-Few Pueblo villages offered much resistance to the new Spanish intrusion. Even so, the Spanish now understood the folly of pushing the Indians too far.
-Officials reduced demands for tribute and ended the encomienda system. The Franciscans eased their attacks on Pueblo religion. New Spanish governors, backed by military force, kept the peace as best they could in a place where Indians still outnumbered Europeans.
-in the earlier fighting.
-In 1688, France and England went to war in Europe, and the struggle between them and their Indian allies for control of the fur trade in North America became part of a larger imperial contest.
-The European powers made peace in 1697, but calm did not immediately return to the Great Lakes region.
-The conflict was even more devastating for the Iroquois.
-The English, still solidifying their control over their new colony of New York, provided minimal military assistance, and the Iroquois suffered heavy casualties.
-Perhaps a quarter of their population died from disease and warfare by 1689.
-The devastation encouraged Iroquois diplomats to find a way to extricate themselves from future English-French conflicts.
-The result, in 1701, was a pair of treaties, negotiated separately with Albany and Montreal, which recognized Iroquois neutrality and, at least for several decades, prevented either the English or the French from dominating the western lands.